Commercial market, production

This reaction has been developed into a commercial product, marketed under the trade name Coolite, which can be used as an emergency light source by simply shaking a tube to bring the reactants in contact with one another. 

This developer is good for low contrast and maximum shadow detail. The commercial product, marketed by Kodak, is the world s best-selling black-and-white developer. 

Very few CPs are produced in bulk quantities. Polyphenylene sulfide, a member of the third generation of polymers, was produced in bulk quantities many years before CPs were established and its dopability was elucidated. Polyethylenedioxythiophene is commercially available as a water-based colloidal dispersion (Baytron P water dispersion), and presumably as dispersible powders. The powders with a conductivity of 5-10 S/cm can be dispersed in thermoplastic polymers and in organic solvents such as xylene. Polyaniline doped with dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid and complexed with zinc dodecylbenzene sulfonate is commercially available as a powder, which can be dispersed in polyolefins. The same polymer doped with p-toluenesulfonic acid is also available as a dispersible powder, Ormecon, and in a predispersed form for solution processing in polar and nonpolar media. Based on Ormecon PANi, there are many commercial products marketed for many different applications. 

If formaldehyde is copolymerized with a second monomer, which is a cyclic either such as ethylene oxide and 1,3-dioxolane, end-group capping is not necessary. The copolymerization results in occasional incorporation of molecules containing two successive methylene groups, whereby the tendency of the molecules to unzip is markedly reduced. This principle is made use of in the commercial products marketed as Celcon (Celanese), Hostaform (Farbwerke Hoechst), and Duracon (Polyplastic). 

Cellulosic fibers, which are currently viewed as viable alternatives to synthetic fibers in the manufacture of NFRPs, have already established their place in the infrastmcture and commercial products market Currently, many types of natural fibers, derived from either wood and agricultural fibrous plants (such as flax, hemp, jute, and kenaf) or vegetable wastes (such as bagasse, rice husk, and grass), have already been investigated for use with plastics. Table 6.1 shows a list of biofibers and their sources [10] a more detailed discussion on natural fiber reinforcements can be found in Chapter 3 of this book. In general, biofibers can be considered... 

The formation of 2.6-octadienol (27) by the reaction of 1,3-butadiene with water has attracted attention as a novel method for the commercial production of n-octanol, which has a considerable market. However, the reaction of water under the usual conditions is very sluggish. The addition of CO2 facilitates the telomerizdtion of water and 2,6-octadienol (27) is obtained as a major pro-duct[31]. In the absence of CO2, only 1,3,7-octatriene (7) is formed. Probably octadienyl carbonate is formed, which is easily hydrolyzed to give 27. A com-... 

A. E. Broderick (Union Carbide). HEC did not become a viable commercial product until the early 1960s. In addition to the general production problems and market development costs, new products face a variety of environmental controls in the 1990s that add more constraints to market development. None the less two more recentiy developed water-soluble polymers have achieved limited market acceptance and are described below. 

Commercial production of acetic acid has been revolutionized in the decade 1978—1988. Butane—naphtha Hquid-phase catalytic oxidation has declined precipitously as methanol [67-56-1] or methyl acetate [79-20-9] carbonylation has become the technology of choice in the world market. By-product acetic acid recovery in other hydrocarbon oxidations, eg, in xylene oxidation to terephthaUc acid and propylene conversion to acryflc acid, has also grown. Production from synthesis gas is increasing and the development of alternative raw materials is under serious consideration following widespread dislocations in the cost of raw material (see Chemurgy). 

The clinical use of plasma products varies widely between countries (Table 8) with commercial products being imported in some instances to meet demand. In the United States, the market for plasma products increased from 250,000,000 in 1980 to over 850,000,000 in 1991. This expansion resulted from a 60% increase in the use of albumin, a 70% increase in the use of Eactor X concentrate, and the introduction of intravenous immunoglobulin (IgG iv). The 1987 quantity of IgG iv was 10.7 kg per million population by 1991 this usage had increased approximately 220%. The introduction of highly... 

Commercial production of PE resias with densities of 0.925 and 0.935 g/cm was started ia 1968 ia the United States by Phillips Petroleum Co. Over time, these resias, particularly LLDPE, became large volume commodity products. Their combiaed worldwide productioa ia 1994 reached 13 X 10 metric t/yr, accouatiag for some 30% market share of all PE resias ia the year 2000, LLDPE productioa is expected to iacrease by 50%. A aew type of LLDPE, compositioaaHy uniform ethylene—a-olefin copolymers produced with metallocene catalysts, was first introduced by Exxon Chemical Company in 1990. The initial production volume was 13,500 t/yr but its growth has been rapid indeed, in 1995 its combiaed production by several companies exceeded 800,000 tons. 

The resulting discoveries may provide a broad range of solutions or products. For example, invention may result from basic research and development efforts directed toward products which ate essential to basic commercial efforts. Alternatively, invention may result in products or appHcations which add value to basic commercial products that ate already in existence. Inventions may also be used to assist an individual or company in commercial efforts toward developing a defensive posture in any given marketplace. When patented, appHcations may also provide an extended opportunity to Hcense or market the patent without the actual production of a product by the inventor. 

Production. Commercial production of Hthopone started in the first half of the nineteenth century, and continued to grow until the middle of the twentieth century when titanium dioxide started to dominate the white, inorganic pigment market. Lithopone is prepared by combining barium sulfide and 2inc sulfate solutions at 50—60°C ... 

Economic Aspects. Oxetanes are expensive monomers and are not readily available in commercial quantities. Commercial production of PBCMO has been discontinued its end uses were not able to support its comparatively high selling price. Energetic polymers prepared from appropriately substituted oxetanes have opened a new market for their use to prepare soHd rocket propeUants and explosives. Should this specialty market result in the large-scale production of these oxetanes even at current (1996) high prices and/or in a cheap synthetic route to oxetanes, this economic picture could change. 

Table 3 fists cycloaliphatic diamines. Specific registry numbers are assigned to the optical isomers of /n t-l,2-cyclohexanediamine the cis isomer is achiral at ambient temperatures because of rapid interconversion of ring conformers. Commercial products ate most often marketed as geometric isomer mixtures, though large differences in symmetry may lead to such wide variations in physical properties that separations by classical unit operations are practicable, as in Du Font s fractional crystallisation of /n t-l,4-cyclohexanediamine (mp 72°C) from the low melting (5°C) cis—trans mixture. 

Commercially, the PMDA mixtures are normally treated with phosgene to produce the corresponding isocyanates. These isocyanate mixtures, commonly called polymeric MDI (PMDI), are sold direcdy and have varied chemical compositions. The 4,4 -MDI can be separated from the PMDI products by distillation or crystallisation (31,32). The amount of 4,4 -MDI that is removed depends on marketing conditions. The residues are also viable commercial products. 

Formaldehyde. Pure formaldehyde, CH2O, is a colorless, pungent smelling reactive gas (see Formaldehyde). The commercial product is handled either as soHd polymer, paraformaldehyde (13), or in aqueous or alcohoHc solutions. Marketed under the trade name Formcel, solutions in methanol, / -butanol, and isobutyl alcohol, made by Hoechst-Celanese, are widely used for making alcohol-modified urea and melamine resins for surface coatings and treating textiles. 

For the purpose of illustrating the recreational surface market, manufacturers and trade names of commercial products are provided in Tables 8 and9. Table 8. Manufacturers and Trade Names of Artificial Turf Surfaces for Multisport Use... 

Japan, Canada, and the United States accounted for 70% of the 1995 estimated world production of 2000 t (Table 5). At least 100 t of selenium was also available to Western markets from the former Soviet bloc. Selenium production is expected to rise in South America, particularly Chile, as the copper industry continues rapid expansion. A considerable amount of unrefined selenium is also shipped to Chile and the Philippines for conversion to final commercial product by either hydrometaHurgical or distillation processes. 

The commercial production of silicon in the form of binary and ternary alloys began early in the twentieth century with the development of electric-arc and blast furnaces and the subsequent rise in iron (qv) and steel (qv) production (1). The most important and most widely used method for making silicon and silicon alloys is by the reduction of oxides or silicates using carbon (qv) in an electric arc furnace. Primary uses of silicon having a purity of greater than 98% ate in the chemical, aluminum, and electronics markets (for higher purity silicon, see Silicon AND SILICON ALLOYS, PURE SILICON). 

Sodium nitrate is used as a fertiliser and in a number of industrial processes. In the period from 1880—1910 it accounted for 60% of the world fertiliser nitrogen production. In the 1990s sodium nitrate accounts for 0.1% of the world fertiliser nitrogen production, and is used for some specific crops and soil conditions. This decline has resulted from an enormous growth in fertiliser manufacture and an increased use of less expensive nitrogen fertilisers (qv) produced from synthetic ammonia (qv), such as urea (qv), ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphates, ammonium sulfate, and ammonia itself (see Ammonium compounds). The commercial production of synthetic ammonia began in 1921, soon after the end of World War I. The main industrial market for sodium nitrate was at first the manufacture of nitric acid (qv) and explosives (see Explosives and propellants). As of the mid-1990s sodium nitrate was used in the production of some explosives and in a number of industrial areas. 

Nor is it tme that there is no market for recycled vinyl. In 1989, the University of Toledo identified neady 100 uses for recycled vinyl. Overall, the potential demand for recycled vinyl is estimated to be over twice the potential supply of all vinyl botdes produced in the United States each year (247 X 10 tons needed vs 103.5 x 10 tons available via recycling of botdes). A more recent directory pubUshed by the Vinyl Institute Hsts neady 50 companies that make commercial products out of recycled vinyl (179). 

Commercial Production. Vitamin B22, as cyanocobalamin, is produced by several companies. The market is dorninated, however, by two... 

The pattern of commercial production of 1,3-butadiene parallels the overall development of the petrochemical industry. Since its discovery via pyrolysis of various organic materials, butadiene has been manufactured from acetylene as weU as ethanol, both via butanediols (1,3- and 1,4-) as intermediates (see Acetylene-DERIVED chemicals). On a global basis, the importance of these processes has decreased substantially because of the increasing production of butadiene from petroleum sources. China and India stiU convert ethanol to butadiene using the two-step process while Poland and the former USSR use a one-step process (229,230). In the past butadiene also was produced by the dehydrogenation of / -butane and oxydehydrogenation of / -butenes. However, butadiene is now primarily produced as a by-product in the steam cracking of hydrocarbon streams to produce ethylene. Except under market dislocation situations, butadiene is almost exclusively manufactured by this process in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. 

Trialkylacetic acids have been produced commercially siace the early 1960s, ia the United States by Exxon and ia Europe by Shell, and have been marketed as neo acids (Exxon) or as Versatic Acids (Shell). The principal commercial products are the acid and the C q acid (neodecanoic acid, or Versatic 10), although smaller quantities of other carbon numbers, such as C, C, and C, are also produced. 

Lithium Hypochlorite. High purity, anhydrous lithium hypochlorite [13840-33-0] LiOCl, is a white, lightweight, dusty, hygroscopic, and corrosive powder. The monohydrate is free-flowing, nondusty, and of reasonable density. The presence of diluents such as salt, sodium, and potassium sulfates reduces dustiness, increases bulk density, reduces reactivity, and improves storage stabiUty. The commercial product is marketed in this form. 

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