Terrestrial

The construction and mining industries offer additional applications for temporary structures, such as concrete forms and geo-textiles, as well as a wide variety of products for restoration of land including sand bags, turf covers and temporary protection for trees and plants. 

As in aquatic applications, weathering and hydrolysis are the dominant degradation mechanisms for terrestrial applications. Polymer articles covered with dirt can be problematic since photodegradation is not available however, the higher humidity levels and microbial activity in the soil when compared to the atmosphere are advantageous for degradation. 

Interesting innovations of a tagging procedure were to study the tracing of several foods of granivores in the field (Smigel et aL, 1974) and also to study the survival rate of a beetle in the field (Bate et al., 1974). In both studies, items were marked with a stable element, and during the course of the study, samples of interest were collected in the field, neutron-activated, and identified as to whether or not the sample had been previously maiiced with the stable tracer element. 

The granivores studied by Smigel et al. (1974) were the Merriam kangaroo rat (Dipodomys merriami) and the desert pocket mouse (Perognathus penicillatus). Seeds were solution-tagged with stable isotopes of rare elements, and the 

Bate et al, (1974) inunersed live elm bark beetles (Scolytus multistriatus) in a solution of 0.01% gold, placed them on elm (Ulmus) twigs, and collected live beetles at a later date. All beetles were subjected to a neutron flux, the tagged beetles were identified, and the survival rate was estimated. 

Bern 3. Concentration of tracer ° e components of East as a ftoi on 

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To define the thennodynamic state of a system one must specify fhe values of a minimum number of variables, enough to reproduce the system with all its macroscopic properties. If special forces (surface effecls, external fields—electric, magnetic, gravitational, etc) are absent, or if the bulk properties are insensitive to these forces, e.g. the weak terrestrial magnetic field, it ordinarily suffices—for a one-component system—to specify fliree variables, e.g. fhe femperature T, the pressure p and the number of moles n, or an equivalent set. For example, if the volume of a surface layer is negligible in comparison with the total volume, surface effects usually contribute negligibly to bulk thennodynamic properties. 

Smith D and Spanel P 1995 Ions in the terrestrial atmosphere and in interstellar olouds Mass Spectrom. Rev. 14 255-78... 

Dalgarno A 1994 Terrestrial and extraterrestrial Advances In Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics ed B Bederson and A Dalgarno (New York Aoademio)... 

Plenary 21 A. Alian Wang et al, e-mail address alianw levee.wustl.edu (RS). (Unable to attend IGORS, but abstract is available in proceedings.) With teclmological advances, Raman spectroscopy now has become a field tool for geologists. Mineral characterization for terrestrial field work is feasible and a Raman instrument is being designed for the next rover to Mars, scheduled for 2003. 

Wisemberg J and Kockarts G 1980 Negative ion chemistry in the terrestrial D region and signal flow graph theory J. Geophys. Res 85 4642-52... 

Zirconium is found in abundance in S-type stars, and has been identified in the sun and meteorites. Analysis of lunar rock samples obtained during the various Apollo missions to the moon show a surprisingly high zirconium oxide content, compared with terrestrial rocks. 

Gr. technetos, artificial) Element 43 was predicted on the basis of the periodic table, and was erroneously reported as having been discovered in 1925, at which time it was named masurium. The element was actually discovered by Perrier and Segre in Italy in 1937. It was found in a sample of molybdenum, which was bombarded by deuterons in the Berkeley cyclotron, and which E. Eawrence sent to these investigators. Technetium was the first element to be produced artificially. Since its discovery, searches for the element in terrestrial material have been made. Finally in 1962, technetium-99 was isolated and identified in African pitchblende (a uranium rich ore) in extremely minute quantities as a spontaneous fission product of uranium-238 by B.T. Kenna and P.K. Kuroda. If it does exist, the concentration must be very small. Technetium has been found in the spectrum of S-, M-, and N-type stars, and its presence in stellar matter is leading to new theories of the production of heavy elements in the stars. 

When considering how the evolution of life could have come about, the seeding of terrestrial life by extraterrestrial bacterial spores traveling through space (panspermia) deserves mention. Much is said about the possibility of some form of life on other planets, including Mars or more distant celestial bodies. Is it possible for some remnants of bacterial life, enclosed in a protective coat of rock dust, to have traveled enormous distances, staying dormant at the extremely low temperature of space and even surviving deadly radiation The spore may be neither alive nor completely dead, and even after billions of years it could have an infinitesimal chance to reach a planet where liquid water could restart its life. Is this science fiction or a real possibility We don t know. Around the turn of the twentieth century Svante Arrhenius (Nobel Prize in chemistry 1903) developed this theory in more detail. There was much recent excitement about claimed fossil bacterial remains in a Martian meteorite recovered from Antarctica (not since... 

It is interesting to note that recent evidence shows that even extra-terrestrially formed hydrocarbons can reach the Earth. The Earth continues to receive some 40,000 tons of interplanetary dust every year. Mass-spectrometric analysis has revealed the presence of hydrocarbons attached to these dust particles, including polycyclic aromatics such as phenanthrene, chrysene, pyrene, benzopyrene, and pentacene of extraterrestrial origin indicated by anomalous isotopic ratios. 

Basically, Newtonian mechanics worked well for problems involving terrestrial and even celestial bodies, providing rational and quantifiable relationships between mass, velocity, acceleration, and force. However, in the realm of optics and electricity, numerous observations seemed to defy Newtonian laws. Phenomena such as diffraction and interference could only be explained if light had both particle and wave properties. Indeed, particles such as electrons and x-rays appeared to have both discrete energy states and momentum, properties similar to those of light. None of the classical, or Newtonian, laws could account for such behavior, and such inadequacies led scientists to search for new concepts in the consideration of the nature of reahty. 

Percentage of meteorites seen to fall. Chondrites. Over 90% of meteorites that are observed to fall out of the sky are classified as chondrites, samples that are distinguished from terrestrial rocks in many ways (3). One of the most fundamental is age. Like most meteorites, chondrites have formation ages close to 4.55 Gyr. Elemental composition is also a property that distinguishes chondrites from all other terrestrial and extraterrestrial samples. Chondrites basically have undifferentiated elemental compositions for most nonvolatile elements and match solar abundances except for moderately volatile elements. The most compositionaHy primitive chondrites are members of the type 1 carbonaceous (Cl) class. The analyses of the small number of existing samples of this rare class most closely match estimates of solar compositions (5) and in fact are primary source solar or cosmic abundances data for the elements that cannot be accurately determined by analysis of lines in the solar spectmm (Table 2). Table 2. Solar System Abundances of the Elements ... 

Extraterrestrial dust particles can be proven to be nonterrestrial by a variety of methods, depending on the particle si2e. Unmelted particles have high helium. He, contents resulting from solar wind implantation. In 10-)J.m particles the concentration approaches l/(cm g) at STP and the He He ratio is close to the solar value. Unmelted particles also often contain preserved tracks of solar cosmic rays that are seen in the electron microscope as randomly oriented linear dislocations in crystals. Eor larger particles other cosmic ray irradiation products such as Mn, Al, and Be can be detected. Most IDPs can be confidently distinguished from terrestrial materials by composition. Typical particles have elemental compositions that match solar abundances for most elements. TypicaUy these have chondritic compositions, and in descending order of abundance are composed of O, Mg, Si, Ee, C, S, Al, Ca, Ni, Na, Cr, Mn, and Ti. 

The earth s cmst consists of 0.09% fluoiine. Among the elements fluorine ranks about thirteenth ia terrestrial abundance. 

As of this writing, the primary focus of research and development in PEFC technology is a fuel-ceU system for terrestrial transportation appHcations... 

The intensity of bioluminescence emission is > 2 x 10 photon /s-cm in the dinoflageUate Gonyaulax and the spectmm of light emission ranges from 450—490 nm (blue) in deep sea species, 490—520 nm (green) in coastal water species, and 510—580 nm (yeUow-green) in terrestrial and freshwater species. 

Exposure. The exposure of humans and animals to mercury from the general environment occurs mainly by inhalation and ingestion of terrestrial and aquatic food chain items. Pish generally rank the highest (10—300 ng/g) in food chain concentrations of mercury. Swordfish and pike may frequently exceed 1 p.g/g (27). Most of the mercury in fish is methyl mercury [593-74-8]. Worldwide, the estimated average intake of total dietary mercury is 5—10 p-g/d in Europe, Russia, and Canada, 20 pg/d in the United States, and 40—80 pg/d in Japan (27). 

There is a general relationship between metal price and terrestrial concentration. Metals present at relatively high concentrations, in the earth s cmst, such as iron and aluminum, are the least expensive rare metals such as gold and platinum are the most valuable. This situation has existed for gold and silver valuation for centuries. The amount of silver in the earth s cmst is approximately 20 times that of gold, and the historical price ratio for gold and silver varied between 10 and 16 for over 3000 years. Since 1970 that price ratio has been strongly affected by market forces and investor speculation. 

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