Stationary Industrial Applications

Development work at MTU resulted in a 250 kW system with molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) operated at Ruhrgas in Dorsten in 1997. The system had a short lifetime, but provided valuable information for improvements. In total, 35 HotModul systems had been dehvered (together with FCE) by the end of 2006. Several systems had a Hfetime of 30000 b until the stack had to be replaced. The overall electrical efficiency is between 45 and 46% at 50-100% of the rated power [158]. 

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Scotch marine boilers (SM boilers) derive their name from the Scottish shipyards that built marine vessels for the British Navy. They were the first design of FT boiler to incorporate both furnace tubes and fire tubes inside the shell and replaced the brick-set boilers that used to burn through the bottoms of ships. The SM boiler was a particularly versatile design and quickly became the boiler of choice for many stationary (land) applications as well as for marine duty. Land-based SM boilers (now commonly called Scotch boilers) were not simply marine boilers adapted for stationary duty but incorporated specific design modifications to meet the requirements of land-based industry. 

Since the commercial introduction of the P-CAC in 1999, several industrial applications have been shown to be transferable to the system. Moreover, users in the biopharmaceutical and foodstuff industry have seen their productivity increasing dramatically as a result of using the P-CAC technology. Furthermore, a P-CAC has been shown capable of continuously separating stereoisomers when using chiral stationary phases even when there is more than one chiral center in the desired molecule. Below some of the applications are described in more details. Others are proprietary and hence cannot be disclosed. 

AFC s for remote applications (i.e., space, undersea, military) are not strongly constrained by cost. On the other hand, the consumer and industrial markets require the development of low cost components if the AFC is to successfully compete with alternative technologies. Much of the recent interest in AFC s for mobile and stationary terrestrial applications has addressed the development of low cost cell components. In this regard, carbon based porous electrodes play a prominent role. 

This equation is appropriate in the case of typical stationary SCR applications where a sub-stoichiometric XHyXO feed ratio is employed to minimize the slip of unconverted ammonia. However, considering that water does not affect the Nremoval in the concentration range of industrial interest (>5% v/v), the term /kinetic constant k c, so that the following simplified rate equation has been successfully applied for the modeling of industrial reactors [38, 39, 27] ... 

The number of VRLA batteries used in stationary applications is increasing rapidly. They account for more than 5.2% of the total US standby power production and more than 60% of Japanese and European production. Fig. 5.15 shows a VRLA battery design for telecommunications standby power. Over the past decade, VRLA batteries have been scaled to sizes up to 3000 Ah for industrial applications. Although the original... 

Non-stationary operations have found large scale industrial application. An important classical example is catalytic cracking, where oil is exposed with a short residence time to a rapidly deactivating zeolitic catalyst, which is regenerated in a second step by removal of deposited coke. A novel non-stationary process is selective butane oxidation over a regenerable oxidation catalyst (see Chapter 2). Undoubtedly we will see more examples of this type of process, in which the proper catalytic step and the regeneration of the catalytic sites occur in different compartments under different conditions. A nice application involves... 

Polymer electrolyte-based fuel cells are emerging as attractive energy conversion systems suitable for use in many industrial applications, starting from a few milliwatts for portables to several kilowatts for stationary and automotive applications. The ability of polymer electrolyte fuel cells to offer high chemical to electrical fuel efficiency and almost zero emissions in comparison to today s prevailing technology based on internal combustion engines (ICEs) makes them an indispensable option as environmental concerns rise [1-6]. 

The following equations represent the possible reactions in different processing steps involving four representative fuels natural gas (CH4) and liquefied propane gas (LPG) for stationary applications, liquid hydrocarbon fuels (CmHn) and methanol (MeOH) and other alcohols for mobile applications, and coal gasification for large-scale industrial applications for syngas and hydrogen production. Most reactions (Eqs. 1.1-1.14 and 1.19-1.21) require (or can be promoted by) specific catalysts and process conditions. Some reactions (Eqs. 1.15-1.18 and 1.22) are undesirable but may occur under certain conditions. 

One of the most successful industrial applications of polymeric catalytic membranes is the Remedia Catalytic Filter System to destroy toxic gaseous dioxins and furans from stationary industrial combustion sources by converting them into water, CO2, and HCl. The system consists of an expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) microporous membrane, needle-punched into a scrim with a catalytically active PTFE felt. The catalyst is a V2O5 on a Ti02 support. The microporous membrane captures the dust but allows gases to pass to the catalyst where they are converted at temperatures as high as 260° C. 

Caterpillar also aims to demonstrate technology to the greatest extent possible that can meet the dual requirements of the transportation industry and the stationary electric power generation industry. In addition to low levels of emissions, we intend to demonstrate high efficiency, durability and reliability. These technical objectives will enable us to calculate the cost of electricity ( /kW-hr) for transportation and stationary power applications. 

The preparation of polymers and other materials with molecularly imprinted cavities has now reached a high degree of sophistication. The application of these materials is becoming more and more interesting. First industrial applications of imprinted materials are envisaged, especially as stationary phases in chromatography, e.g., for the resolution of racemates. Other interesting applications can be seen in membranes and in sensors. 

In addition to the kerosene-fueled prototype, Nippon Oil has developed a 1 kW LPG-fueled system, the Eneos Eco-LP-1, which uses Ebara Ballard fuel cell stacks. According to Nippon Oil, more than 300 orders have been placed for the units, which are installed for free, although residential users are charged 60 000 Yen (approximately 522) per year to rent the unit. Nippon Oil also is working in collaboration with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries to enter the large stationary commercial applications market with the development of a 10 kW kerosene-fueled system (Adamson 2005). 

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