Nonionics, alcohol

Ethoxylated methylcarboxylates Propoxyethoxy glyceryl sulfonate Alkylpropoxyethoxy sulfate as surfactant, xanthan, and a copolymer of acrylamide and sodium 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonate Carboxymethylated ethoxylated surfactants (CME) Polyethylene oxide (PEG) as a sacrificial adsorbate Polyethylene glycols, propoxylated/ethoxylated alkyl sulfates Mixtures of sulfonates and nonionic alcohols Combination of lignosulfonates and fatty amines Alkyl xylene sulfonates, polyethoxylated alkyl phenols, octaethylene glycol mono n-decyl ether, and tetradecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride Anionic sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), cationic tetradecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride (TTAC), nonionic pentadecylethoxylated nonylphenol (NP-15), and nonionic octaethylene glycol N-dodecyl ether Dimethylalkylamine oxides as cosurfactants and viscosifiers (N-Dodecyl)trimethylammonium bromide Petrochemical sulfonate and propane sulfonate of an ethoxylated alcohol or phenol Petrochemical sulfonate and a-olefin sulfonate... 

Particularly effective is a mixture of anionic and nonionic agents, such as a mildly anionic sulphated alcohol ethoxylate with a nonionic alcohol ethoxylate. Ideally, foaming agents should ... 

Table 17.4 lists values of the CMC for C12-surfactants with different headgroups. Within the nonionic alcohol ethoxylate surfactants, the headgroup area increases with an increasing number of oxyethylene units. The CMC simultaneously increases, illustrating that steric repulsion increases the CMC (Figure 17.3). 

Linear primary alcohols and alpha olefins in the C6-C 8 range have enjoyed remarkable growth in the last three decades. As esters, the C6—C,0 alcohols are used for plasticizing PVC. In the C 2-C]g range, the alcohols are used to make readily biodegradable surfactants of various types such as ethoxylates (nonionic), alcohol sulfates, and sulfates of ethoxylates (anionic). Alpha olefins are used as polyethylene comonomer (33%) and as raw materials for detergent alcohols (22%), oxo alcohols (10%), and lubricants and lube oil additives (18%). 

According to Eq. (8), the pATr value equals the acidity function (Hr) of that solution, in which equal concentrations of carbocation and nonionized alcohol coexist. The acidity function Hr has been derived by Deno, studying equilibria as described by Eq. (7) it approaches pH in dilute aqueous solution. For the reasons discussed above, the application of this method is limited and has been used mostly to characterize aryl-substituted carbocations (Scheme 4) which do not react with their precursor alcohols. 

Anionic alkyl ether sulfate surfactants are produced by sulfating nonionic alcohol polyalkyloxylates such as the ethoxylated surfactants discussed earlier. The sul-fated products generally contain variable amounts of unconverted alcohols and inorganic salts as reaction by-products. Determination of the ratio of anionic to nonionic components in surfactant mixtures is desired for quality control and performance evaluation. Separation of the ionic sulfate and nonionic alcohol components is achieved by reversed-phase chromatography. The separation of four alkyl ether sulfate surfactants is shown in Table 3. 

Surfactants Ionic, anionic (e.g., sodium dodecyl sulphate, Cj2H250S03 Na ), cationic (e.g., cetyl trimethyl ammonium chloride, Ci,H33-N+(CH3)3C1-), zwitterionic [e.g., 3-dimethyldodecylamine propane sulphonate (betaine CJ2H25-N" (CH3)2-CH2-CH2-CH2-S03)], nonionic, alcohol ethoxylates C H2 +i-0-(CH2-CH2-0) -H, alkyl phenol ethoxylates C H2 +i-CgH4-0-(CH2-CH2-0) -H, amine oxides (e.g., decyl dimethyl amine oxide, C10H21-N ( 113)2 0), and amine ethoxylates. 

One example is to separate mono- and dicarboxylic acids from alcohols and carbohydrates using a cation resin in the H form with sulfuric acid as the eluate. Strong acids are highly ionized and elute at the void volume of the column, whereas the nonionic alcohols and carbohydrates, which are completely protonated, are neutral and enter the resin. They generally emerge from the resin in the order of the smallest molecule first. 

For some applications, relatively high residual levels of alcohol ethoxylate surfactant are desirable hence, excess ethoxylate is employed. Numerous products have evolved containing varying levels of residnal phosphoric acid and alcohol (alcohol ethoxylate) to meet niche application requirements. Typically [40,42], 0.3-1.5 mol of alcohol (alcohol ethoxylate) reacted with 1 mol of P2O5 (0.15-0.75 mole ROH per eqnivalent P) in 115% polyphosphoric acid at 50°C. The reaction is heated to 105-110°C and held for 1-2 h. The product is 70-90 wt% monoester, 9-28% diester, and 0.1-12% nonionic alcohol ethoxylate [42]. 

These are the major anionic surfactants used in all ranges of household detergents formulation, but especially in heavy duty laundry products, sometimes in combination with nonionics, alcohol sulphates of the tallow range and soaps. 

Nonionics. Alcohol ethoxylates and alkylphenol ethoxylates were separated on a fused silica column (30 m X 0.25 mm (0.25 micron film)) of SE-54 using helium as carrier gas and El or Cl (chemical ionisation) (methane) MS detection. Temperature programming was from 70°C (1 min) to 300°C (10 min hold) at 3°C per minute. Ethoxylates up to 6EO units could be detected [6]. 

TRYFAC Phosphate Esters are proprietary anionic surfactants prepared by the phosphation of various types of nonionic alcohols, ethoxylated alcohols and ethoxylated alkyl phenols. The finished products are a blend of raonoester and diester with slight amounts of free or unreacted phosphoric acid and nonionic. TRYFAC Phosphate Esters are available as either the free acid form (not neutralized) and/or the potassium salt. 

Holmes et al. [182,200] have explored the effects of an electrolyte (CsCl) and a nonionic alcohol (lH,l//-perfluroheptan-l-ol) on the lamellar and nematic phases of the CsPFO-water system. Both additives facilitate a decrease in surface curvature and the growth of larger and flatter interfaces. 

Fig. XIV-16. A photomicrograph of a two-dimensional foam of a commercial ethox-ylated alcohol nonionic surfactant solution containing emulsified octane in which the oil drops have drained from the foam films into the Plateau borders. (From Ref. 234.)...

Linear paraffins in the C q to range are used for the production of alcohols and plasticizers and biodegradable detergents of the linear alkylbenzene sulfonate and nonionic types (see Alcohols Plasticizers Surfactants). Here the UOP Molex process is used to extract / -paraffins from a hydrotreated kerosine (6—8). 

Solvents. The most widely used solvent is deionized water primarily because it is cheap and readily available. Other solvents include ethanol, propjdene glycol or butylene glycol, sorbitol, and ethoxylated nonionic surfactants. There is a trend in styling products toward alcohol-free formulas. This may have consumer appeal, but limits the formulator to using water-soluble polymers, and requires additional solvents to solubilize the fragrance and higher levels of preservatives. 

Many different types of foaming agents are used, but nonionic surfactants are the most common, eg, ethoxylated fatty alcohols, fatty acid alkanolamides, fatty amine oxides, nonylphenol ethoxylates, and octylphenol ethoxylates, to name a few (see Alkylphenols). Anionic surfactants can be used, but with caution, due to potential complexing with cationic polymers commonly used in mousses. 

Three generations of latices as characterized by the type of surfactant used in manufacture have been defined (53). The first generation includes latices made with conventional (/) anionic surfactants like fatty acid soaps, alkyl carboxylates, alkyl sulfates, and alkyl sulfonates (54) (2) nonionic surfactants like poly(ethylene oxide) or poly(vinyl alcohol) used to improve freeze—thaw and shear stabiUty and (J) cationic surfactants like amines, nitriles, and other nitrogen bases, rarely used because of incompatibiUty problems. Portiand cement latex modifiers are one example where cationic surfactants are used. Anionic surfactants yield smaller particles than nonionic surfactants (55). Often a combination of anionic surfactants or anionic and nonionic surfactants are used to provide improved stabiUty. The stabilizing abiUty of anionic fatty acid soaps diminishes at lower pH as the soaps revert to their acids. First-generation latices also suffer from the presence of soap on the polymer particles at the end of the polymerization. Steam and vacuum stripping methods are often used to remove the soap and unreacted monomer from the final product (56). 

Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), a nonionic thickening agent, is prepared from alkali cellulose and ethylene oxide in the presence of isopropyl alcohol (46). HEC is used in drilling muds, but more commonly in completion fluids where its acid-degradable nature is advantageous. Magnesium oxide stabilizes the viscosity-building action of HEC in salt brines up to 135°C (47). HEC concentrations are ca 0.6—6 kg/m (0.2—21b/bbl). 

In the 1990s, the thmst of surfactant flooding work has been to develop surfactants which provide low interfacial tensions in saline media, particularly seawater require less cosurfactant are effective at low concentrations and exhibit lower adsorption on rock. Nonionic surfactants such as alcohol ethoxylates, alkylphenol ethoxylates (215) and propoxylates (216), and alcohol propoxylates (216) have been evaluated for this appHcation. More recently, anionic surfactants have been used (216—230). 

Anionic surfactants are the most commonly used class of surfactant. Anionic surfactants include sulfates such as sodium alkylsulfate and the homologous ethoxylated versions and sulfonates, eg, sodium alkylglycerol ether sulfonate and sodium cocoyl isethionate. Nonionic surfactants are commonly used at low levels ( 1 2%) to reduce soap scum formation of the product, especially in hard water. These nonionic surfactants are usually ethoxylated fatty materials, such as H0CH2CH20(CH2CH20) R. These are commonly based on triglycerides or fatty alcohols. Amphoteric surfactants, such as cocamidopropyl betaine and cocoamphoacetate, are more recent surfactants in the bar soap area and are typically used at low levels (<2%) as secondary surfactants. These materials can have a dramatic impact on both the lathering and mildness of products (26). 

Nonionic surfactants are often characterized ia terms of their hydrophi1 e—1 ipophi1 e balance (HLB) number (see Emulsions). For simple alcohol... 

Lanolin alcohols are obtained by saponification of purified wool grease, a mixture of high molecular esters that is recovered in wool (qv) scouring. Ethoxylation of purified lanolin alcohols yields a full series of lipophilic and hydrophilic nonionic emulsifiers whose largest use is in cosmetic preparations. Manufacturers include Amerchol, Croda, ICI, Henkel Corporation, Westbrook Lanolin, Witco, and Pulcra, SA. 

Poly(vinyl acetate) emulsions can be made with a surfactant alone or with a protective coUoid alone, but the usual practice is to use a combination of the two. Normally, up to 3 wt % stabilizers may be included in the recipe, but when water sensitivity or tack of the wet film is desired, as in some adhesives, more may be included. The most commonly used surfactants are the anionic sulfates and sulfonates, but cationic emulsifiers and nonionics are also suitable. Indeed, some emulsion compounding formulas require the use of cationic or nonionic surfactants for stable formulations. The most commonly used protective coUoids are poly(vinyl alcohol) and hydroxyethyl cellulose, but there are many others, natural and synthetic, which are usable if not preferable for a given appHcation. 

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