Salt brines

Natural gas and its combustion properties appear to have been known since early times (2). Some early temples of worship were located in areas where gas was seeping from the ground or from springs, and it is reported that Julius Caesar saw a phenomenon called the "burning spring" near Grenoble, France. Gas wells were drilled in Japan as early as 615 AD and in 900 AD the Chinese employed bamboo tubes to transport natural gas to their salt works, where the heat was used to evaporate water from salt brine. The existence of natural gas in the United States was reported by early setders who observed gas seeps and columns of fire in the Ohio Valley and the Appalachian area in 1775 (3). 

Water. Water is often added to processed meat products for a variety of reasons. It is an important carrier of various ionic components that are added to processed meat products. The retention of water during further processing of meat is necessary to obtain a product that is juicy and has higher yields. The amount of water added during the preparation of processed meat products depends on the final properties desired. Water may be added to a meat product as a salt brine or as ice during the comminution step of sausage preparation. 

Electro dialysis is used widely to desalinate brackish water, but this is by no means its only significant appHcation. In Japan, which has no readily available natural salt brines, electro dialysis is used to concentrate salt from seawater. The process is also used in the food industry to deionize cheese whey, and in a number of poUution-control appHcations. 

Sohd salt, ground and packaged in several particle size grades, can be used in saturated salt brines to increase the fluid density (28). However, sized salt is most often used as a water-soluble material for bridging or sealing porous formations. At one time the sized salt systems were used primarily for completion or workover operations, but use has increased as ddU-in fluids for horizontal wells (29). 

Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), a nonionic thickening agent, is prepared from alkali cellulose and ethylene oxide in the presence of isopropyl alcohol (46). HEC is used in drilling muds, but more commonly in completion fluids where its acid-degradable nature is advantageous. Magnesium oxide stabilizes the viscosity-building action of HEC in salt brines up to 135°C (47). HEC concentrations are ca 0.6—6 kg/m (0.2—21b/bbl). 

Rubidium is found widely dispersed in potassium minerals and salt brines. LepidoHte [1317-64-2] a lithium mica having the composition KRbLi(0H,F)Al2Si20 Q, contains up to 3.5% Rb20 and is the principal source of the element. An ore that is basically poUucite [1308-53-8] ... 

Salt preserves foods by providing a hostile environment for certain microorganisms. Within foods, salt brine dehydrates bacterial cells, alters osmotic pressure, and inhibits bacterial growth and subsequent spoilage. Dry salt and salt brine are used in several types of curing processes. Pickles are preserved in strong brine before final processing. 

In baked products, salt controls fermentation (qv) by retarding yeast activity, preventing wild fermentation, important in making a uniform product. During pickle-making, salt brine is gradually increased in concentration, reducing the fermentation rate as the process proceeds to completion. Salt is also... 

Water is softened by removing calcium and magnesium ions from hard water in exchange for sodium ions at sites on cation-exchange resin. Water softeners typically use a gel polystyrene sulfonate cation-exchange resin regenerated with a 10% salt brine solution (25). 

Solution mining produced nearly 23 million metric tons of salt in 1989 representing more than half of the total U.S. salt production (14). Salt brine is made from bedded salt at more than 18 different locations and from 17 salt domes (15). Bedded salt of the salina formation is the most widely and intensively exploited by solution mining. Enormous reserves of salina salt are available. Cost of solution mining salt is usually less than the cost of salt produced by dry mining. The method is particularly good where salt deposits are deep and dry mining would not be feasible. 

W. J. Schlitt, ed.. Salts Brines 83, Port City Press, Baltimore, Md., 1985, 209 pp. 501 references. 

Salt Brines The typical curve of freezing point is shown in Fig. II-IIO. Brine of concentration x (water concentration is I-x) will not solidify at 0°C (freezing temperature for water, point A). When the temperature drops to B, the first ciystal of ice is formed. As the temperature decreases to C, ice ciystals continue to form and their mixture with the brine solution forms the slush. At the point C there will be part ice in the mixture /(/i+L), and liquid (brine) /i/(/i-t-L). At point D there is mixture of mi parts eutectic brine solution Di [concentration mi/(mi-t-mg)], and mo parts of ice [concentration mol m -t- mo)]. Coohng the mixture below D solidifies the entire solution at the eutectic temperature. Eutectic temperature is the lowest temperature that can be reached with no solidification. 

The 18-8 stainless steels pit severely in fatty acids, salt brines, and salt solutions. Often the solution for such chronic behavior is to switch to plastics or glass fibers that do not pit because they are made of more inert material. 

Refrigeration is needed for processes that require temperatures below those that can be economically obtained with cooling water. For temperatures down to around 10 0, chilled water can be used. For lower temperatures, down to -30°C, salt brines (NaCl and CaCF) are used to distribute the refrigeration" around the site from a central refrigeration unit. Vapor compression machines are normally used. 

Werk, n. work works apparatus, mechanism (Salt) brine evaporated at one time (Metal.) pig of raw lead (Paper) stuff, -anlage, /. plant, works work, equipment, -blei, n. raw lead (usually containing silver), -bot-tich, m., -butte,/, (Paper) stuff vat. -fuhrer, m. foreman. -leitung, /. management, -leute, pi. workmen, hands, -meister, m. foreman, -probe, /. (Metal.) sample of... 

The salts content of soils may be markedly altered by man s activities. The effect of cathodic protection will be discussed later in this section. Fertiliser use, particularly the heavy doses used in lawn care, introduces many chemicals into the soil. Industrial wastes, salt brines from petroleum production, thawing salts on walks and roads, weed-killing salts at the base of metal structures, and many other situations could be cited as examples of alteration of the soil solution. In tidal areas or in soils near extensive salt deposits, depletion of fresh ground-water supplies has resulted in a flow of brackish or salty sea water into these soils, causing increased corrosion. 

In salt brines, the water maybe considered as the heat transfer medium, since the specific heat capacity of the salt content is low (see Figure 12.3). The specific heat capacityofthe brine will therefore... 

To reduce the effects of corrosion, inhibitors are added, typically sodium chromate in the salt brines and sodium phosphate in the glycols. These are alkaline salts and help to counteract the effects of oxidation, but periodic checks should be taken, and borax or similar alkali added if the pH value falls below 7.0 or 7.5 [1]. 

Typical salt brine regenerant concentration is 10 to 25% NaCl maximum is 36%. Caution is needed when using some types of rock salt because it may contain considerable calcium and magnesium salts. Good quality rock salt is 98 to 98.5% NaCl. Evaporated, recrystallized salt is 99.5 to 99.8% NaCl. See Table 9.2 for concentrations of salt regenerant. 

In practice, as softening is also required, the process train is BX/SBA(C1), and salt brine provides the regenerant for both units. Also, the quantity of SBA (Cl) regenerant is increased by 5 to 10% through the addition of NaOH solution to improve regeneration efficiencies. 

Salt brine when regenerating ion-exchange softeners, typically assume a 25% W/V solution and that one U.S. gallon contains 2.5 lb of salt and weighs 10 lb. 

Manufacture Co-produced with sodium hydroxide by the electrolysis of salt brine. electrical current 2NaCH-2H20 2NaOH -1- H2 -l- CI2 sodium water hydrogen chlorine chloride... 

Chemical plants are a series of operations that take raw materials and convert them into desired products, salable by-products, and unwanted wastes. Fats and oils obtained from animals and plants are hydrolyzed (reacted with water) and then reacted with soda ash or sodium hydroxide to make soaps and glycerine. Bromine and iodine are recovered from sea water and salt brines. Nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted together under pressure in the presence of a catalyst to produce ammonia, the basic ingredient used in the production of synthetic fertilizers. 

Sodium chloride is found in salt beds, salt brines, and sea water throughout the world, and it is also mined is some locations. Consequently, sodium chloride is the source of numerous other sodium compounds. A large portion of the sodium chloride utilized is consumed in the production of sodium hydroxide (Eq. (11.23)). The production of sodium metal involves the electrolysis of the molten chloride, usually in the form of a eutectic mixture with calcium chloride. Sodium carbonate is an important material that is used in many ways such as making glass. It was formerly produced from NaCl by means of the Solvay process, in which the overall reaction is... 

There are many natural sources of chlorine compounds, which is not surprising considering that it is the 20th most abundant element. Salt and salt water are widely available the Great Salt Lake contains 23% salt, and the Dead Sea contains about 30%. Because salt is so abundant, most minerals that contain chlorine are not important sources for economic reasons. Bromine is found in some salt brines and in the sea, as are some iodine compounds. 

Gorden, G., Gauw, R., Emmert, G. Bubnis, B. (1998) The kinetics and mechanism of 003-formation following the electrolysis of salt brine what role do CIO2 and/or O3 play . Models in Chemistry, 135(5), 799-809. 

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