Application industrial

Other industrial applications of the concept include that for coating tablets in the pharmaceutical industry (Wurster et al. 1965), for drying of 

Although most of the experimental data reported here were obtained with large particles, Geldart Class B and D powders, it is believed that the concept can equally be applied for any fine aeratable and lfee-flowing solids, Geldart s Class A powders. 

Numerous industrial applications of applied thermodynamics have been reported in the literature for engineering analysis of wide varieties of chemical systems and processes. For example, Chen and Mathias reported examples of physical property modeling for the high-density polyethylene process and for sulfuric acid plants. Here, we present two recent examples that are illustrative of numerous applications of applied thermodynamics models in the industry for various process and product development studies. 

Above we have mentioned several heterogeneous applications such as the OCT process and SHOP. Neohexene (3,3-dimethyl-1-butene), an important intermediate in the synthesis of fine chemicals, is produced from the dimer of isobutene, which consists of a mixture of 2,4,4-trimethyl-2-pentene and 2,4,4-trimethyl- 1-pentene. Cross-metathesis of the former with ethene yields the desired product. The catalyst is a mixture of W03/Si02 for metathesis and MgO for isomerisation at 370 °C and 30 bar. The isobutene is recycled to the isobutene dimerisation unit [48], 

We also mentioned Vestenamer 8012, a predominantly trans polymer of cyclooctene made with a WC16 based catalyst (Degussa-Hiils), used in blends and poly-norbomene made by a catalyst generated from RuC13 in t-BuOH in the presence of air (Norsorex by Atofina, a polymer with a very high molecular weight). 

1 Ivin, K. I Mol, J. C. Olefin Metatheis and Metathesis Polymerization, Academic Press, 1997, San Diego USA, London UK. Special issue on metathesis Adv. Chem. Cat. 2002, 344, issue 6/7. 

8 Many industrial polymer chemists will have observed this phenomonon in the early days e.g. van der Ven, S. van Leeuwen, P.W. N. M 1969, Shell Research, unpublished. 

9 Dolgoplosk, B. A. Makovetskii, K. L. Tinyakova, E. I. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 1972, 202, 871 (Engl- transl. p. 95-97). 

Colloids are found to play an important role in many aspects of industrial products. Therefore, there is much research devoted to the following aspects of colloids  

Production of well-defined colloidal products Stability criteria of colloidal products Disability criteria 

Some industrial products in which the foregoing characteristics are of primary importance include paints, inks, food products, and pharmaceuticals. 

The potential differences, /, at different phase boundaries, as mentioned before, have been found to have many industrial applications. The application of electrophoresis to the separation and purification of proteins has also been discussed. Both electrophoresis and electroosmosis have attained a certain amount of industrial application. 

The colloidal particles are often deposited on metallic electrodes in the form of adsorbed coatings. Rubber and graphite coatings can be formed in this way, using solvent mixtures (water-acetone) as the dispersion media. The advantage of this method is that additives can firmly be codeposited with, for example, rubber latex. Thermionic emitters for radio valves are produced in a similar manner. The colloidal suspensions of alkaline earth carbonates are deposited electrophoretically on the electrode and are later converted to oxides by using an ignition process. 

Until now, only a small number of industrial applications has been reported. The metolachlor process was originally was developed in the Central Research Laboratories of Ciba-Geigy (now Solvias), but is now operated by Syngenta. With a volume of 10 000 ty it is the largest known enantioselective catalytic production process [24—26]. 

The search for a commercially viable process took many years, during which time several approaches with Rh or Ir complexes using commercially available diphosphine ligands proved to be unsuccessful. However, a critical breakthrough was achieved when Ir complexes with a new class of ferrocenyl based ligands - now known as Solvias Josiphos-were used. Especially in the presence of acid and iodide ions, extremely active and productive catalysts were obtained, and conse- 

The optimized process is carried out in a loop reactor at 80 bar (8 x 10 hPa) hydrogen and 50°C with a catalyst generated in situ from [lr(cod)Cl]2 and the Josiphos hgand R = Ph, R = Xyl at a substrate-to-catalyst ratio of 1000000 in the presence of trace amounts of HI. Complete conversion is reached within 3—4h, the initial TOFs exceed 1800000b, and the ee-value is about 80%. The product (S)-NAA is distilled and the catalyst discarded. Today, this process is operated by Syngenta on a scale of 10000ty .  

An Ir-catalyzed hydrogenation developed by Lonza for an intermediate of dextromethorphan was carried out on 100kg scale [29]. Here, the important success factors were the ligand fine tuning and the use of a biphasic system. The 

A good example of such a continuous moulding process that incorporates Foam Film technology is a system developed for the production of industrial vehicle carpets. These products are usually made out of a sandwich of two or more layers of different materials. Individually, they provide different features aesthetics and function (a textile carpet or a synthetic mat), sound deadening (a layer of polyurethane foam) and protective (a cheap layer to protect the foam from moisture and degradation). 

The system is composed of two shuttle-bed clamps served by one metering unit, which dispenses the pre-heated heavy layer in the mould. Pre-heating is carried out using a special infra-red heater, which incorporates easily adjustable, special low thermal-inertia resistances. When a vacuum is applied to the mould, the material adheres to the lower mould half, taking on its shape and embossed design. 

The protective film is automatically unrolled from an overhead source using a vertical traversing frame with pinchers that pulls an appropriate length of film over the frame and cuts it to length. The frame is positioned over the edge of the mould. Another bank of heaters slides laterally in front of the mould and warms the film to the correct forming temperature a vacuum is applied at the end of the heating phase to conform the film to the mould. 

The use of two presses, as opposed to one, means that slack periods are eliminated and use of the cycle time is maximised. While the film and heavy layer are being placed in one of the moulds and pre-heated, foaming and polymerisation are taking place on the other. 

The polyurethane dosing and foaming section of this plant is equipped with a moulding technology that allows chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) blowing agents to be replaced with liquid carbon dioxide. This helps reduce the density of the polyurethane considerably and thus saves on material costs. 

Latexes are usually not used in their original form, but are compounded to varying degrees with other components to tailor them to their intended applications (231). Pigments (142) and thickeners (116) are added to latexes to modify their optical and rheological properties, respectively. The latex itself is not often the main product, but is rather used to improve the performance properties of the commercial product to which it is applied. For example, latex coatings provide chemical resistance to the exposed surfaces of 

Cheap and efficient methods in the synthesis of drugs in big scale are of great value for industrial applications. Simple, low cost, and commercially available starting materials are very important as cost of goods play more and more a central role in industry. MCRs fulfill these conditions as complex structures can be assembled in only one step [130], 

SCHEME 6.62 Synthesis of y,6-alkynyl P-amino acid derivatives. 

SCHEME 6.63 Ugi four-component reaction allows the synthesis of seleno amino acid derivatives 418. 

SCHEME 6.64 Four-component Ugi reaction followed hy Pictet-Spengler cyclization to obtain praziquantel 424. 

After acidic treatment of the enamine and esterification of the resulting acid 429, they obtain rac-clopidogrel 430 in 73% yield (over three steps). The racemic compound is obtained in only three steps however, the drug on the market is the (R)-enantiomer. 

Even in 1992, it was estimated that business involving the sale of compounds containing carbon-fluorine bonds was worth around US 50 billion per annum [60] and it has certainly increased since then. In this chapter, only a short survey of the major industrial applications of fluorinated molecules is possible and the reader is directed to a number of books and reviews [17, 20, 29, 61-65] for further details. 

The first commercial application was the coating of a fully assembled electric motor. The motor is assembled from parts of different sizes and thickness. Conventional powder coating flows and cures easily on thin and small parts, but the heavier parts may not ever reach the required melting temperature or cure completely even after extended periods of time. This technology is readily applicable to other products, such as wooden furniture with metal hardware. 

Currently, the UV powder coating technology is used on a large scale for the following products  

Millions of tons of benzene are hydrogenated each year to give cyclohexane, which is converted to nylon via adipic acid. Whereas this process has been carried out with heterogeneous Raney nickel catalysts until now, a homogeneous process using Ziegler-type catalysts is about to take over. Catalysts based on nickel and cobalt salts in combination with triethylaluminum hydrogenate benzene under relatively mild conditions (155 °C, 1 MPa). This process is called the IFP process (Institut Fran ais du Petrole) [97] (cf Section 2.3.1.4). 

A variety of important drugs contain the chiral substituent 2-propanoic acid, e. g., naproxen, for which the patent has now expired. Using the methodology of enantioselective hydrogenation, the corresponding a-substituted acrylic acids give high optical inductions [69]. However, in most cases the tedious synthesis of the acrylic acid precursor is the obstacle to industrial application (cf. Sections 2.9 and 3.3.1). 

The development of a viable process for the H PB ester took more than a year. In the course of process development, more than 200 hydrogenation reactions were carried out. The most important results of this development work can be summarized as follows  

After about 2 years, the production process was developed, patented, and scaled up, and in 1987 several hundred kilograms were manufactured in a 5001 autoclave. 

For a comparison of the various processes developed for industrial manufacturing of (R)-HPB ester, see Ref. [46]. 

The scope of cinchona-based chiral auxiliary or chirality transmitters for enantioselective reductions is at the moment restricted to heterogeneous Pt and Pd catalysts and primarily to the reduction of a-functionalized ketones and to a lesser degree of activated C=C bonds. Up to now, very few homogeneous catalysts have been described, and with the exception of a transfer hydrogenation system, none shows any promise. 

For the hydrogenation of a-keto esters and a-keto acetals, the performance of the heterogeneous cinchona-modified Pt catalysts is equal to and in some cases superior to the best homogenous catalysts. Indeed, several industrial applications have been described that underline this statement. For most other substrates, the performance of the cinchona-modified Pd or Pt catalysts is not (yet) on a level where the application to real-world substrates has been demonstrated. 

The development of a viable process for the HPB ester took more than a year. Even before the age of high-throughput screening, the obvious strategy was first, to screen for the best catalyst, modifier and solvent, second, to optimize relevant reaction parameters (pressure, temperature, concentrations, etc.) and, finally, to scale-up and solve relevant technical questions. Indeed, during the course of the process development more than 200 hydrogenation reactions were carried out The most important results of this development work may be summarized as follows  

AcOH) gave the best results and were chosen for further development. 

94mmolg catalyst h , and up to 83% ee was obtained. Compared to the heterogeneous batch process with ee-values of up to 92% at much lower Cd concentrations [31b], or to the homogeneous process, the continuous variant was probably not competitive. At present, pantothenic acid is still produced using the established racemate separation route. 

The principles of this microwave irradiation system are, briefly  

Since the early 1980s there has been much interest in the development of industrial applications of microwave irradiation in catalytic processes. This interest has been driven by the unique attributes of the selective interactions of microwave ra- 

Despite the scaling-up problems, several industrial processes have been proposed and disclosed, mainly in the patent literature  

Roussy, J.A. Pearce, Foundations and Industrial Applications of Microwave and Radiofrequency Fields, John Wiley Sons, New York, 1995. 

Metaxas, R.J. Meredith, Industrial Microwave Heating, Peter Peregrinns Ltd., 1993. 

Fabrics used in the automotive industry must meet exceptionally high requirements and be subjected to nonstandard tests that simulate the high-temperature and humidity conditions of light exposure [7]. Dyed fibers cannot meet these accelerated exposure specifications, which are met by specially stabilized, pigmented polypropylene fibers. The outdoor use of polypropylene fibers is expected to grow because of improved stabilizers. It has permitted grass-substitute products to be manufactured in a variety of forms. Many of them resemble carpets, which, until 1980, were used only indoors. 

Ultrafiltration is a membrane process whose nature lies between nanofiltration and microfiltration. The pore sizes of the membranes used range from 0.05 um (on the microfiltration side) to 1 am (on the nanofiltration side). Ultrafiltration is typically used to retain macromolecules and colloids from a solution, the lower limit being solutes with molecular weights of a few thousand Daltons. Ultrafiltration and microfiltration membranes can both be considered as porous membranes where rejection is determined mainly by the size and shape of the solutes relative to the pore size in the membrane and where the transport of solvent is directly proportional to the applied pressure. Such convective solvent flow through a porous membrane can be described by the Kozeny-Carman equation (see eq. VI - 27) for example. In fact both microfiltration and ultrafiltration involve similar membrane processes based on the same separation principle. However, an important difference is that ultrafiltration membranes have an asymmetric structure with a much denser toplayer (smaller pore size and lower surface porosity) and consequently a much higher hydrodynamic resistance. 

The loplaver thickness in an uJtrafiliraiion membrane is generally Jess than J p.m with figure VI - 7 illustrating an example of an asymmetric polysulfone membrane. 

The flux through an ultrafiltration membrane can be de.scribedih the same way as for microfiJtration membranes, being directly proportional to the applied pressure  

The fundamental criterion needed to avoid any aggravation of the situation and to reverse the trend, is the efficient use of resources, in the knowledge that only a type of growth that restores the central focus on the territory and knowledge economy, the cascading model, and absence of waste and rejects, will lead to continuous harmonious growth. 

A similar approach requires the selection of standards which have to go, beyond the products, towards the systems. The objective should not be to maximise market volumes, but the local regeneration from an environmental, social and economic view point, promoting a cultural jump towards a system-based economy. 

For this purpose industry and institutions should select stringent quality rules to guarantee a) compostability and biodegradability in different environments, b) nontoxicity of products, c) a low environmental impact for the whole product life cycle, and d) a continuous improvements programme in terms of the quality of raw materials, renewability level, production chain, in use efficiency and end of life options. 

A PRO-BIP Report of 2009 [106] identified the following main applications for compostable and biodegradable polymers  

The EU average market potential predicted for 2020 is estimated to be approximately 2 million tonnes/year, ranging between 1.5 and 4 million tonnes/year for the different scenarios listed above. 

Feature Non/Slowly Coalescing System Rapidly Coalescing System 

Scale-up criterion PAf = constant Circulation time = constant 

Impellers suspension polymerization RDT and optional Multiple RDTs and axial 

Time to reach Long times for large Short times under 30 min for 

Geometric similarity Maintain close vessel sizes) Use more and larger turbines in 

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Liquid-liquid and liquid-solid equilibria also find industrial applications in liquid-liquid extraction and fractional crystallization operations. 

The industrial applications, for which blown bitumen are very often used. Some of the industrial applications are given below ... 

Those, on industrial applications orientated systems, are acoustic emission and the temperature analysis of the casting. Realizing this conception (fig. 2) will enable to develop a process parameter control and consequently to stabilize the casting process. 

On industrial applications orientated detection of casting defects... 

Although the presented results prove the efficiency of radioscopy, this system have certain characteristics which justify to develop and employ further process integrated testing systems. One of this characteristics is that the integration of radioscopy in industrial applications is doubtful because of reasons of radiation protection. This means, that the results from radioscopy should rather be used to fit other systems (acoustic emission analysis or temperature analysis) for industrial applications. 

We have presented a neural network based spectrum classifier (NSC) aimed at ultrasonic resonance spectroscopy. The ultrasonic spectroscopy and the NSC has been evaluated in many industrial applications, such as concrete inspection, testing of aerospace composite structures, ball bearings, and aircraft multi-layer structures. The latter application has been presented in some detail. 

Finally, by volumetric imaging Three-dimensional information was obtained by stacking reflection tomograms from multiple planes. Using this stacking technique, cubic voxels were obtained and could be numerically dissected in any plane. Although there are several attractive features related to this technique, there are also several questions which need to be addressed before it can be used for industrial applications. For example, the applied sound field must be further characterized. 

For an industrial application it is necessary to separate the response of a real crack from artifacts, and to derive information about the geometry and the location of the crack. For this purpose we have developed a filter which is sensitive to the characteristic features of a signal caused by a crack and amplifies it, whereas signals without these typical features are suppressed. In Fig. 5.1 first results obtained with such an iterative filter algorithm are shown. 

As the same basis was used for the development of these standards, their was now a method for all film manufacturers to properly identify their films within a given system. This also provides an excellent means for the development of new film products to meet specific industry applications requirements for quality. 

Recently we have made available the isotope Selenium for non-destructive testing. These sources offer technical specifications as required by industrial applications and provide various advantages when compared with other radiation sources. 

Industrial Application of Computed Radiography with Luminescence Imaging Plates. 

Feiste, K. Hanke, R. Stegemann, D. R.eimche, W. Three Dimensional Analysis of Growing Casting Defects. International Symposium on Computerized Tomography for Industrial Applications, Applications II 20, Berlin, 1994. 

U.Ewert et al. Digital Laminography. In International Symp. on Computerized Tomography for Industrial Applications, Berlin, June 1994, pp.148-159... 

International symposium on computerized tomograpy for industrial applications, Berlin 1994. 

X- and Gamma-Ray Computed Tomography Scanners for Industrial Applications. 

Various computed tomography CT- scanners for industrial applications have been designed and constructed) They use as radiation sources X-ray tubes or gamma emitting radioisotopes and as detectors NaI(Tl)-scintillators for gamma rays and image intensifiers for X-rays. 

L. I. Osipow, Surface Chemistry, Theory and Industrial Applications, Krieger, New York, 1977. 

D. Karsa, ed.. Industrial Applications of Surfactants, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1987. 

In corrosion, adsorbates react directly with the substrate atoms to fomi new chemical species. The products may desorb from the surface (volatilization reaction) or may remain adsorbed in fonning a corrosion layer. Corrosion reactions have many industrial applications, such as dry etching of semiconductor surfaces. An example of a volatilization reaction is the etching of Si by fluorine [43]. In this case, fluorine reacts with the Si surface to fonn SiF gas. Note that the crystallinity of the remaining surface is also severely disrupted by this reaction. An example of corrosion layer fonnation is the oxidation of Fe metal to fonn mst. In this case, none of the products are volatile, but the crystallinity of the surface is dismpted as the bulk oxide fonns. Corrosion and etching reactions are discussed in more detail in section A3.10 and section C2.9. 

A concise summary of chemistry of technologically important reactions catalysed by organometallic complexes in solution. Cornils B and Herrmann W A (eds) 1996 Applied Homogeneous Catalysis with Organometallio Compounds (Weinheim VCH) A two-volume, multiauthored account with emphasis on industrial applications. 

It is extensively used for kitchen utensils, outside building decoration, and in thousands of industrial applications where a strong, light, easily constructed material is needed. 

Acetylene was discovered m 1836 by Edmund Davy and characterized by the French chemist P E M Berthelot m 1862 It did not command much attention until its large scale preparation from calcium carbide m the last decade of the nineteenth century stim ulated interest m industrial applications In the first stage of that synthesis limestone and coke a material rich m elemental carbon obtained from coal are heated m an electric furnace to form calcium carbide... 

Thus far the importance of carbon cluster chemistry has been in the discovery of new knowl edge Many scientists feel that the earliest industrial applications of the fullerenes will be based on their novel electrical properties Buckminsterfullerene is an insulator but has a high electron affinity and is a superconductor in its reduced form Nanotubes have aroused a great deal of interest for their electrical properties and as potential sources of carbon fibers of great strength... 

Synthetic ethanol is derived from petroleum by hydration of ethylene In the United States some 700 million lb of synthetic ethanol is produced annually It is relatively inexpensive and useful for industrial applications To make it unfit for drinking it is denatured by adding any of a number of noxious materials exempting it from the high taxes most governments impose on ethanol used m beverages... 

The material of this chapter and, for that matter, of the two preceding chapters has wide applicability in the area of technology and manufacture. To do justice to this facet of the subject would require a book in itself, so we must settle for a few paragraphs concerned with industrial applications. 

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