Economic indicators study

A nuclear process heat reactor was selected for this application for economic reasons. Studies (1,3) indicated that the economics of steam generation from nuclear energy are favorable where a large amount of relatively low-temperature thermal energy is required in a single-purpose plant. The source of energy used to produce the steam required is immaterial as far as the sea water evaporators are concerned. 

The case studies cover key applications in chemical process industries, from petrochemistry to polymers and biofuels. The selection of processes was confronted with the problem of availability of sufficient design and technology data. The development of the flowsheet and its integration is based on employing a systems viewpoint and systematic process synthesis techniques, amply explained over three chapters. In consequence, the solution contains elements of originality, but in each case this is compared to schemes and economic indices reported in the literature. 

From process studies carried out in this pilot plant over several years, parameters were defined to permit process and engineering designs of full commercial operations. Process economics indicated the cost of this active carbon would be greater than currently available commercial carbons. However, hundreds of evaluations in a full spectrum of applications showed that this active carbon would be competitive in many of those applications on a cost-performance basis. It will be commercially available mid-85 in various forms, trademarked as SUPER-A, from Anderson Development Company in Adrian, Michigan,... 

The annual operating costs are also shown in Table 3. The raw materials costs were estimated from the average purchase cost of crude olive oil in Portugal in 1994. Supplies were empirically calculated from the scale-up study and include water, electric power, fiiel, maintenance, assurances, transports and expedient articles. The labour costs were determined for 4 shifts of 2 persons each, plus supervising personal. With a depreciation time of ten years and an interest rate of 10%, the total annual capital costs was estimated to be 212PTE/kg of oil feed. Several other economical indicators, such as the internal rate of return of the plant, showed a promising economical feasibility for this project. 

The conversion of solid wastes to innocuous gases can be accomplished in incinerators in an environmentally acceptable feshion. However, the hot exhaust gases must be cooled or diluted with air. An economic feasibility study indicates that solid municipal waste can be burned to a gas of the following composition (on a dry basis) ... 

They also evaluated isothermal MR concepts and compared them in performance with the adiabatic Catofin and Oleflex processes. They studied two different type processes using Knudsen diffusion membranes a process called CMRL, patterned after the commercial Oleflex process, with low propane conversion, and a process called CMRH, patterned after the commercial Catofin process with high propane conversion. They have calculated the return on investment (ROI) for all four processes. Though marginally better than the commercial processes, the ROI for all four processes evaluated is not very attractive. A sensitivity analysis indicates that for the ROI of the MR processes to be attractive a price difference between propane and propylene of more that 300/ton is required. Though published calculations have only been performed for the propane/propylene pair, it is not unreasonable to assume that similar conclusions apply to other alkane/alkene pairs. Similar conclusions about catalytic alkane dehydrogenation have also been reached in a technical/economic evaluation study by Amoco workers and their academic collaborators (Ward et al [6.3 ]). 

The economic evaluation studies are based on normative criteria, independent of subjective opinions, which indicate preferences in any course of action. Every alternative is independent of the other ones and the measure of the economic preferences is made separately. Renkema and Berghout [10] distinguish four basic approaches to evaluate investment alternatives the financial approach, the multicriteria approach, the ratio approach, and the portfolio approach. Methods from the financial approach are usually recommended for the evaluation and selection of investment alternatives. Often used financial approach methods are the payback period (PP) method, the internal rate of return (IRR) method, and the NPV method. The latter is used to evaluate this project. 

Attempting to measure all 45 socio-economic indicators in any given post-disaster context is the desirable objective, but data availability constraints mean this is not always feasible. Quite often multiple sources of data are required to measure all indicators (e.g., reinsurance companies such as MiinichRe or SwissRe, international organization situation reports such as produced from the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) or the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) case studies, such as the ones conducted by the World Bank (WB)). Consequently, this may lead to slight variations exist in estimates and totals. 

In an economic comparison of these three common abatement systems, a 1991 EPA study (58) indicates extended absorption to be the most cost-effective method for NO removal, with selective reduction only matching its performance for small-capacity plants of about 200—250 t/d. Nonselective abatement systems were indicated to be the least cost-effective method of abatement. The results of any comparison depend on the cost of capital versus variable operating costs. A low capital cost for SCR is offset by the ammonia required to remove the NO. Higher tail gas NO... 

In addition, other utiUties are installing estabUshed solar cells in a growing number of tests that may lead to a mass market. The studies may indicate the extent to which solar cells can be used to avoid installation costs for new distribution lines between conventional power plants and remote customers buildings. Also, among other objectives, PV cells may provide an economical means of helping to supply demand during peak summer periods in northern climates. 

As with all of die processes described, drese are first studied in detail in the laboratoty with an industrial application as dre objective. Those processes which pass the criterion of economic potential are used in a pilot plant smdy, and dretr, if successful, at the production level which must be optimized. The materials which are produced are mainly, in the present instance, for application in the elecU onics industry where relatively high costs are acceptable. It will be seen drat the simple kinetic theory of gases is adequate to account for dre rates of these processes, and to indicate the ways in which production may be optimized on dre industrial scale. 

Cost Indices In some cases, the cost of a piece of equipment is available from a previous study, and it is desirable to evaluate its present cost. Because of inflation and other economic changes, it is necessary to correlate equipment cost as a function of time. In this regard, cost indices are useful tools. A cost index is an indicator of how equipment cost varies over time. The ratio of cost indices at two different times provides an estimate for the extent of equipment-cost inflation between these two times. Hence,... 

The results of the pilot study will be most credible if success criteria are established ahead of time. This avoids the temptation to adjust criteria to demonstrate success. Success criteria should be related to the benefits of integration previously identified. Ideally they should be able to provide an indication of the economic benefit achieved. For example, reduction in... 

Although the source of raw materials may not be at the plant site, it is an e.xtremcly important factor in the ultimate location of the plant. Process development work and economic studies will indicate the minimum standards for raw materials selection. When these standards have been determined, all possible sources of acceptable raw materials can be located and a detailed analysis can proceed. 

Generation was normally modeled m system studies using economic dispatch schedules developed from individual unit fuel cost and heat-rate data. To serve a particular load level, the units would be stacked (added to the system) in order of priority based on cost and performance. Additional capacity options were available from off-system purchases or reserve sharing arrangements with neighboring systems. A system s ability to import power was a strong indicator of its territorial rcscivc requirements. 

An interesting problem solved by operations research methods is that of the flow of traffic through the New York tunnels. The presence of toll booths causes congestion of traffic at the entrances and exits of tunnels. Economical operation of the toll booths necessitates that not all booths be open at all times. By studying the statistics of the traffic, a schedule was developed indicating the number of booths to be operated at different times of the day. In this manner congestion was alleviated, and the frequency of traffic jams was reduced considerably.8... 

Archival study This involved a review of relevant documents and records, including dmg laws and executive orders inspection checklists DRA annual reports economic, health and other indicators and reports of other studies available (e.g. opinion surveys, dmg use studies). 

TES use can enhance the economic competitiveness of both energy suppliers and building owners. For example, one study for California [10] indicates that, assuming 20% statewide market penetration of TES, the following financial benefits can be achieved in the state ... 

Product studies of most major chemicals giving the present projected economic characteristics. It gives the manufacturers production processes, prices, many data sheets, and cunent indicators. It is constantly being revised. 

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