Labour cost

Brushing Suitable for use on most articles, but use limited for economic reasons. Results rely almost entirely on skill of the operator Labour cost is high... 

Note 6 Labour costs for the application of paint increase in the order airless spray normal air spray roller brush... 

Typical units for productivity are kg m 3 h 1. Factors that influence productivity include the production time of the fermentation, the time required to dean and set up the reactor, the sterilisation time and the length of the lag phase of growth. Figure 2.2 shows how total productivity and maximal productivity can be calculated for a batch fermentation. The dedsion as to when the fermentation is terminated (maximum or total productivity) depends on the operating costs, which include the capacity of the fermentation vessel, energy costs and labour costs. 

Only 10 firms account for 75% of agrochemicals sales, while the 15 largest drug companies have a market share of only 33% (Stinson, 1995). About 85% of fine chemicals are manufactured by companies of the triad the United States (28%), Western Europe (39%), and Japan (17%). Italy, with 4.0 million litres reactor capacity and 71 manufacturers, topped the European fine chemicals industry (Layman, 1993). Recently India, China, and Eastern-Central European countries have gained a significant proportion of the market, as a result of the lower direct labour costs and the more relaxed environmental and safety standards. It is fair to state that the high quality of chemists in these countries has also contributed to this development. In 1993, the cost of producing fine chemicals in India was 12% below that in Europe (Layman, 1993). 

Production costs include capital-dependent costs, e.g. depreciation, interest, insurance, and taxes and operating costs such as costs of raw materials and auxiliaries, costs of utilities, waste-disposal costs, labour costs, maintenance costs, and overheads. 

This item will include the cost of maintenance labour, which can be as high as the operating labour cost, and the materials (including equipment spares) needed for the maintenance of the plant. The annual maintenance costs for chemical plants are high, typically 5 to 15 per cent of the installed capital costs. They should be estimated from a knowledge of the maintenance costs on similar plant. As a first estimate the annual maintenance cost can be taken as 10 per cent of the fixed capital cost the cost can be considered to be divided evenly between labour and materials. 

As a rough estimate the cost can be taken as 20 to 30 per cent of the operating labour cost, or 2 to 4 per cent of the total production cost. 

The plant overhead cost is usually estimated from the total labour costs operating, maintenance and supervision. A typical range would be 50 to 100 per cent of the labour costs depending on the size of the plant and whether the plant was on a new site, or an extension of an existing site. 

All of these three usually consist of a number of partial costs. Investments, operation management costs, fuel prices, labour costs, solvent costs, and in some cases waste disposal costs are all common costs that has to be taken into account. 

Some gum users now take gum in a pre-prepared form. Spray dried gum acacia has been used in pharmaceutical products for some time. The spray dried gum offers the pharmaceutical manufacturer a clean ready to use product. Instant forms of gum acacia have been offered by suppliers for some time. The instant products can be rapidly made into solution and used. Obviously the instant gum is more expensive. A manufacturer that uses gum as a minor ingredient may well find that the capital and labour cost of purifying raw gum is not cost effective. A company that uses gum acacia as a major ingredient might come to a different conclusion. Instantised gums pose different problems to the analytical chemist.. One approach that can be used is to have an optical rotation specification for the product. Even this approach is not entirely proof against a material that contains a blend of gums of different optical rotation. 

In the chemical industry processes are often capital intensive with consistent raw materials being converted into long-life products. If a process is capital intensive it pays to run the process 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 52 weeks a year, as far as technically possible. Labour costs are likely to be minimised by working continuously as well. 

The labour cost is independent of the number of effects and hence the total annual cost C is made up of the capital charges plus the cost of steam, or ... 

For the limitations of this publication, it is not possible to present a comprehensive set of the data used as input to the model. In principle, the model is based on the technoeconomic characteristics of hydrogen production and distribution technologies, as presented in Chapters 10 and 12, respectively, such as specific investments for certain plant sizes, full load hours, process efficiencies, maintenance and labour costs, etc. 

In traditional (neoclassical) trade theory, the theorem of factor proportionality plays an important role in explaining trade flows (Ohlin, 1933 Samuelson, 1948). This theorem postulates that there will be gains from trade through increased specialisation in sectors that make intensive use of those factors with which countries are relatively well endowed (e.g., capital availability or labour cost). However, the well known Leontief paradox (against the theorem of factor proportionality, the USA actually import labour- and capital-intensive products, (Leontief, 1956)) and other empirical research2 opened up a debate on the value of this theorem and new... 

The second area of advance is in mechanisation which enables the opening and closing to be done automatically by a ram driven hydraulically or by an electric motor. Plate transportation is effected by fitting triggers to two endless chains operating the plates, and labour costs have consequently been reduced very considerably. Improved designs have... 

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