US National Academy of Science

Almost all target species that are monitored and controlled develop resistance to the pesticides used. As early as 1984, the US National Academy of Science gave an international conference on the issues of resistance it was admitted that, both in theory and practice, there are no satisfactory and universal methods of fighting pesticide resistance. The situation has not changed in the decades since. 

US-National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council BEIR-II, The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation, Washington, DC, USA (1980). 

Most probabilistic assessments have tended to combine variability and parameter uncertainty, and not consider model or decision rule uncertainty. Recent guidance from the US National Academy of Sciences (NRC 1994), USEPA (1997), US DOE (Bechtel Jacobs Company 1998), and others (Hattis and Burmaster 1994 Hoffman and Hammonds 1994) has emphasized the importance of tracking variability and parameter uncertainty separately. Indeed, the USEPA (2000) states that the risk assessor should strive to distinguish between variability and uncertainty. Two major advantages of tracking variability and parameter uncertainty separately in an uncertainty analysis are... 

C. Longuet-Higgins and M. E. Fisher. Lars Onsager 1903-1976. Biographical Memoirs of the US National Academy of Sciences (Washington DC, 1991), pp. 181-231.]... 

W. H. Crouse et al. (eds.). McGraw-Hill Modern Men of Science (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1966), pp. 319-21 B. Zimm. Bibliographic Memoirs of the US National Academy of Sciences 65, 210-21 (1994).]... 

Chromium is an essential element for man. The minimal requirement for man is estimated to be about 1 /ig/day. As the absorption of inorganic chromium (Cr III) is about 0.5% of a given dose, and the absorption of organically bound chromium is even higher, a dietary exposure to 200 //g chromium/day will provide the estimated requirement. The US National Academy of Sciences has recommended a dietary intake of 50 to 200 mg/day for adults.42... 

The National Research Council (NRC) of the US National Academy of Sciences recently concluded that the cancer risks posed by naturally occurring chemicals in the food supply were considerably greater than the risks from synthetic chemicals such as pesticides (NRC, 1996). 

Human health risk assessment has often been dominated by the use of default assumptions and worst case analyses, based on the use of upper bounds on the dose from exposure instead of distributional characterizations of that dose. There are severe limitations associated with the use of default assumptions and upper bounds instead of distributions when detailed exposure and/or dose-response data are available. The US National Academy of Sciences, the USEPA, and many others have recognized the need for new risk assessment methodology (NRC, 1983, 1993, 1994 USEPA, 1992 CRARM, 1997). This need has promoted the development of new quantitative risk assessment methods that use probabilistic techniques, especially Monte Carlo simulation and distributional characterizations of dose-response, exposure, and risk. For these reasons, this paper uses a probabilistic approach. An indication of some of these new methods and the type of results they produce are given below. 

C. N. R. Rao is Albert Einstein Research Professor at the Indian Institute of Science and President of the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore. He was bom in Bangalore and educated in Mysore, Banaras and Purdue Universities. He was Visiting Professor at the Oxford and Cambridge Universities and is Honorary Professor at the University of Wales, Cardiff. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, Foreign Associate of the US National Academy of Sciences and Member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences. He is the recipient of the Marlow Medal and the Solid State Chemistry Medal of the Royal Society of Chemistry, of which he is an honorary fellow. 

Professor. His research interests are mainly in solid-state and materials chemistry. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, a Foreign Associate of the US National Academy of Sciences and French Academy of Sciences, and a Foreign Member of several... 

The biggest explosion in materials chemistry and physics occurred in late 1986 when high-temperature superconductivity was discovered in a lanthanum cuprate, a material which was a ceramic and on which a few chemists had worked earlier. As stated in a report of the US National Academy of Sciences, this discovery changed the role of chemistry in the study of materials, and materials chemistry became a more significant part of materials science. It is around this time that even chemists started to consider solid state chemistry as an integral and important part of main-stream chemistry. 

Craig H., Boato G., and White D. E. (1956) Isotopic geochemistry of thermal waters. US National Academy of Science, National Resource Council, vol. 400, pp. 29-38. 

The Average Requirement of ascorbic acid is 30 mg/day. The Population Reference Intake is 45 mg/day for adults. The Lowest Threshold Intake, for which considerable evidence exists, is 12 mg/day (1). These estimates have been supported by the relevant committee of the European Union. A communication from the US National Academy of Sciences, as part of the revision of US Dietary Reference Intakes, while estimating rather higher average requirements of ascorbic acid than the EU committee, does (100 mg/day) also proposed a tolerable upper intake... 

The editorial refers to the attempts of the UK Government s Committee on Toxicity to find the safe level of daily consumption of pyridoxine. In July 1997 the committee recommended that the sale of pyridoxine in, for instance, health-food shops would be restricted to doses of 10 mg/day. Doses between 10 and 50 mg would be restricted to sale at pharmacies and doses of 50 mg and above would be available only on prescription. Contrary to these UK recommendations the Committee of the US National Academy of Science concluded that there were no convincing reports of adverse events at doses of up to 200 mg/day. Paying attention to the fact that recommendations tend to be more cautious than might seem necessary from the available evidence, the US experts halved the 200 mg/day dose to define their limit as 100 mg/day. 

At that time, existing drugs on the US market also came under scrutiny, and a review of their efficacy conducted by the US National Academy of Sciences (112) led to the voluntary withdrawal by pharmaceutical manufacturers of about two-thirds of the approximately 7100 products that the FDA had previously approved (113). 

US National Academy of Sciences. Drug Efficacy Study. A Report to the Commissiouer of Food and Drugs. Washiugtou DC Natioual Academy of Sciences, 1969. 

In 1983, the National Research Council of the (US) National Academy of Sciences published a report titled Risk Assessment in the Federal Government Managing the Process this work has had a marked influence on the risk assessment process used by regulatory agencies worldwide. The risk assessment process, in this report, consists of four components hazard identification, dose-response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization. 

Lam C-W and James JY (1996) Indole. In Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, vol. 2, pp. 235-249. Commission on Life Sciences (CLS). Washington, DC US National Academy of Sciences (NAS), National Academies Press. 

MCLs based upon peer-reviewed science from the (US) National Academy of Sciences. 

FIGURE 22.7 X-Ray structure of d(CGG) chelated to a cisplatin unit. (From Reedijk, 2003. Copyright 2003 with permission from US National Academy of Sciences.)... 

National Research Council (NRC). (1994). Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants, US National Academy of Science, Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment, National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. 

US National Academy of Sciences, Strategies to Determine Needs and Priorities for Toxicity Testing, Washington, National Academy Press, 1981. 

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