Infant formula fatty acids

Clandinin MT, Van Aerde IE, Parrott A, Field CJ, Euler A. R, Lien EL. Assessment of the efficacious dose of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids in preterm infant formulas fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membrane lipids. Pediatr Res 1997 42 819-825. 

Clandinin, M. T., Van Aerde, J. E., Parrott, A., Field, C. J., Euler, A.R., and Lien, E.L. (1997) Assessment of the Efficacious Dose of Arachidonic and Docosahexaenoic Acids in Preterm Infant Formulas Fatty Acid Composition of Erythrocyte Membrane Lipids, Pediatr. Res. 42, 819-825. 

Carlson, S.E., Cooke, R.J., Rhodes, P.G., Peeples, JM., Werk-man, S.H., and Tolley, E.A. (1991) Long-Term Feeding of Formulas High in Linolenic Acid and Marine Oil to Very Low Birth Weight Infants Phospholipid Fatty Acids, Ferfia/r. Jfe. 30,404 12. 

Vitamins and Other Nutrients in Food Matrices see also Section 6.3. Food matrices are available with values assigned for vitamins, carotenoids, fatty acids, cholesterol, natural toxins, veterinary drugs, and hormone residues. The NIST food matrix SRMs for vitamins include coconut oil (SRM 1563), infant formula (SRM 1846), and baby food composite (SRM 2383) (particularly for carotenoids). Fatty acids and cholesterol are the primary analytes of interest in meat homogenate (SRM 1546) and diet... 

Several studies have been conducted on calcium-fat interactions in human infants (64-70). Low synthesis of bile salts and low pancreatic lipase activity may be responsible for poorer fat utilization in infants than in adults (63,71). Fat from infant formulas may be lower than that from human milk because of the lack of a bile-stimulated lipase in the former (72). In infants, fat absorption tends to decrease with increase in fatty acid length, with lower degree of saturation, and with increase of total fat (3). Triglyceride structure may also influence fat absorption in the infant and, thus, indirectly, might also affect calcium absorption in the infant. 

Another commercially available product containing naturally occurring marine products is Formulaid , produced by Martek Biosciences as a nutritional supplement for infant formulas. Formulaid contains two fatty acids, arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), extracted from a variety of marine microalgae. ARA and DHA are the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acids found in breast milk, and they are the most important fatty acids used in the development of brain gray matter. They are especially desirable for use in infant formulas because they come from nonmeat sources and can be advertised as vegetarian additives to the product. 

Infant formula, tocopherol/tocotrienol analysis, 479, 487, 489 (table) Infrared spectroscopy, see also Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy fat measurement, 572 trans fatty acids, 505 Infrared/ultrasonic scanner for emulsion creaming, 597-598 Injection techniques for GC, 449 Insoluble recombinant proteins, purification of, 276... 

Enzymatic hydrolysis is a nondestructive alternative to saponification for removing triglycerides in vitamin K determinations. For the simultaneous determination of vitamins A, D, E, and K in milk- and soy-based infant formulas and dairy products fortified with these vitamins (81), an amount of sample containing approximately 3.5-4.0 g of fat was digested for 1 h with lipase at 37°C and at pH 7.7. This treatment effectively hydrolyzed the glycerides, but only partially converted retinyl palmitate and a-tocopheryl acetate to their alcohol forms vitamin D and phyllo-quinone were unaffected. The hydrolysate was made alkaline in order to precipitate the fatty acids as soaps and then diluted with ethanol and extracted with pentane. A final water wash yielded an organic phase containing primarily the fat-soluble vitamins and cholesterol. 

No differences in blood plasma TAC were found after 30 days of feeding low-birth-weight infants with a formula containing n-6 and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) from purified phospholipids as compared with a group fed human milk (Rl). Cyclic voltammetry of blood plasma of 2- to 4-month-old infants did not reveal any differences in the antioxidant capacity between breast-fed and modified cow milk formula-fed infants (G15). 

Rl. Ramirez, M., Gallardo, E. M., Souto, A. S., Weissheimer, C., and Gil, A., Plasma fatty-acid composition and antioxidant capacity in low birth-weight infants fed formula enriched with... 

In humans, the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is extremely slow, with only about 15% and 5% of ALA converted to EPA and DHA, respectively (Cunnane, 1995). This conversion appears to be affected by a number of dietary factors. For example, a diet rich in linoleic acid has been found to reduce this conversion by as much as 40% (Emken, 1995). In addition, saturated and lruns fatty acids also interfere with ALA desaturation and elongation steps (Ackman and Cunnane, 1992 HouwelingenandHornstra, 1994). DHA can be reconverted back to EPA, although in humans it appears to be a very minor pathway (Brossard et al., 1996). DHA appears to play an important in the brain and retina and was found to be incorporated during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first year of life. Visual acuity was shown to develop much faster in preterm infants fed formulas rich in DHA compared with standard infant formulas low in long chain n-3 fatty acids (Jorgensen et al., 1996). 

Human milk is the best food for babies as it provides all the nutrients needed for about the first 6 months (26 weeks) of life. Moreover, it contains nutrients that are fit for the unique needs of the human infant, such as certain essential polyunsaturated fatty acids and certain milk proteins, as well as Fe in a readily absorbable form. Human milk also contains immunological and bioactive substances, absent from commercial infant formulas, which confer protection from bacterial and viral infections and may aid gut adaptation and development of the newborn. 

Absorption of dietary calcium is linked not only to the amount but also to the kind fatty acids in the diet of infants. In a controlled study, the fatty acid composition in one experimental formula was adjusted to simulate human milk, but the structure was dissimilar because the Ci6 o in the formula was mostly at the sn-3 rather than the sn-2 position. The greatest loss of calcium in the feces occurred when formulae with the wrong proportions of Ci6 0 and Ci8 o were fed. Fat absorption and calcium retention were highest in infants fed human milk, followed by infants fed formulae containing a high level of Ci2 o (Nelson et al., 1996, 1998). 

It is becoming more popular in the US for infant formula manufactures to add fish oils to fortify infant formulae with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are critical in early child development because they are necessary for the formation of neural tissues and cells of vascular tissue, but are produced de novo at very low levels from the dietary essential fatty acids Ci8 2, m-3 and Cis 3, co-3. Typically, the long-chain fatty acids, doco-sahexaenoic acid (DHA C22 6) and arachidonic acid (AA C2o 4), were not added to infant formulae available in the US until recently. Many commercial infant formulae manufactures, including Wyeth, Ross and Mead Johnson, now produce infant formulae that are supplemented with DHA and AA. The level of DHA is approximately 0.32%, w/w of fat, and the level of AA is approximately 0.64% w/w of fat. Breast-milk naturally contains small amounts of these long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. 

In a long-term feeding trial started in 1992 (Mercola, 2003), 111 newborns were fed a formula supplemented with DHA and AA and 126 were given a similar formula without DHA and AA. Another group of children in the study were breast-fed. When the children reached 6 years of age, their blood pressure was measured. Children fed the fatty acid-supplemented formula as infants had an average diastolic blood pressure that was three points lower than the control formula-fed group. The children who were exclusively breast-fed had the lowest diastolic blood pressure, but... 

A fish oil supplement for infant formula has been shown to be effective at maintaining concentrations of co-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in erythrocytes. Although human milk contains only small amounts of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, it contains all the w-6 and w-3 fatty acids found in erythrocyte membranes. Carlson et al. (1987) demonstrated that if infant formula is supplemented with fish oil rich in EPA (C20 5, o>-3) and DHA (C22 6, w-3), levels of these polyunsaturated fatty acids can be maintained post-birth, in erythrocyte membranes. These results indicate the effectiveness of providing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids directly in the diet rather than as precursors. 

It is clear from this discussion that carnitine is required in humans for the oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. In humans, carnitine is derived from both dietary sources and endogenous biosynthesis. Meat products, particularly red meats, and dairy products are important dietary sources of carnitine. Since biosynthesis can meet all physiological requirements, carnitine is not an essential nutrient. Premature infants are an exception to this rule as they lack a mature biosynthetic system and have limited tissue carnitine stores. As many infant formulas, particularly those based on soy protein, are low in carnitine, premature infants receiving a significant part of their nutrition from such formulas may be susceptible to carnitine deficiency. 

Human milk lipids are unique in that they contain predominantly palmitate at the sn-2 position. To produce an infant formula whose lipids resemble those of mothers milk, Yang et al. (84) employed Rhizomucor miehei lipase to catalyze the acidolysis of lard, which is rich in 2-palmitoyl acylglycerols, with soybean fatty acids. As the enzyme had tight specificity for reaction at the sn- and sn-3 positions of the... 

Although significant strides have been directed at reducing fat content in food products, certain lipid ingredients and sources of fatty acids are used to enhance the health and nutritional quality of foods. For example, CLA isomers were enriched in both dairy and nondairy products to convey its anticancer and antiobesity effects that were reported repeatedly in animal studies (39). Sources of n-3 PUFAs are also added directly to infant formula to provide sufficient DHA for normal development of the nervous system during early infancy. In the United States, DHA was approved by the FDA in 2001 to be added into infant formula (40, 41). 

Besides phospholipid composition, the main difference between plant/legume lecithin (e.g., soy) and lecithin in egg yolk is that the former has a higher unsaturated fatty acid content and no cholesterol. Egg lecithin as a commercial ingredient, with the exception of some medical feeding programs, is too expensive for routine use in food (10). In some infant formulas, egg yolk lipids and egg lecithin are used (22). 

Betapol , a human milkfat substitute produced by Loders Croklaan (Wormerveer, the Netherlands), is produced by interesterification of vegetable oils in which the component TAGs have been modified to more closely resemble those found in breast milk. This product closely mimics the specific structure and fatty acid composition of human milkfat and resembles breast milk in terms of its nutritional value and high content of palmitic acid at the sn-2 position than other milkfat substitutes. In addition, the use of Betapol in infant formula can lead to improved mineral and fat absorption and less calcium soap formation within the intestinal lumen resulting in softer stools. 

Enzyme-catalyzed reactions are used to produce human mUkfat substitutes for use in infant formulas (46-48). Acidolysis reaction of a mixture of tripalmitin and unsaturated fatty acids using a i -l,3-specific lipase as a biocatalyst afforded TAGs derived entirely from vegetable oils rich in 2-position palmitate with unsaturated fatty acyl groups in the sn- and sn-3 positions (44). These TAGs closely mimic the fatty acid distribution found in human mUkfat, and, when used in infant formula instead of conventional fats, the presence of palmitate in the sn-2 position of the TAGs improved digestibility of the fat and absorption of other important nutrients such as calcium (46, 49). 

The typical Western diet supplies about 100 mg of carnitine per day. Meat and milk are good sources beef contains about 500 mg/kg, and cow milk contains 5 to 40 mg/kg of fluid. Hen eggs and plant food contain little or no carnitine. The trimethyllysine present in food proteins contributes, to a very small extent, to the carnitine made in the body. There is, however, some concern about a transient deficiency of carnitine in newborn infants fed camitine-free diets. Soy-based infant formula may lack carrutine, and the neonate seems to have a lesser capacity to synthesize the cofactor than adults. Breast milk contains high levels of carnitine after about a month of lactation, the content declines to about half of its mitial value. There is little evidence that the lowered levels of plasma carnitine found in infants fed soy formulas are associated with an impairment of the oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. 

The answer is d. (Murray, pp 258-297. Scriver, pp 2705-2716. Sack, pp 121-138. Wilson, pp 362-367.) Infants placed on chronic low-fat formula diets olten develop skin problems, impaired lipid transport, and eventually poor growth. This can be overcome by including linoleic acid to make up 1 to 2% ol the total caloric requirement. Essential fatty acids are required because humans have only A", A , A , and A fatty acid desaturase. Only plants have desaturase greater than A . Consequently, certain fatty acids such as arachidonic acid cannot be made from scratch (de novo) in humans and other mammals. However, linoleic acid, which plants make, can be converted to arachidonic. acid. Arachidonate and eicosapentaenoate are 20-carbon prostanoic acids that are the starting point of the synthesis of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes. 

On April 7-9,1999, an international working group of scientists met at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland (USA) to discuss the scientific evidence relative to dietary recommendations of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids (Simopoulos, et al., 1999). The latest scientific evidence based on controlled interventiontrials in infant nutrition, cardiovascular disease, and mental health was extensively discussed. Tables Al and A2 include the Adequate Intakes (Al) for omega-6 and omega-3 essential fatty acids for adult and infant formula/diet, respectively. 

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