Economic Forces

Caustic Soda to Chlorine Balance. In 1988, the ratio of U.S. caustic soda to chlorine consumption was 0.96 1 (see Fig. 39). Since 1968 this ratio has ranged from alow of 0.88 1 (1978 and 1981) to a high of 0.98 1 (1969). No single factor can explain these variations, since caustic soda and chlorine, with few exceptions, have different markets and are therefore not driven by the same economic forces. This ratio is expected to trend upward over the next five years, however, since caustic soda consumption in the United States is forecasted to grow somewhat faster than chlorine consumption. It is expected that this ratio will remain within the range experienced in 1970—1990. Because caustic soda is co-produced with chlorine at a theoretical ratio of 1.1 1, a U.S. consumption ratio below that level results in excess avaHabihty of caustic soda. This material is typically shipped offshore to fill a significant export demand, and in 1988, for example, net U.S. exports of caustic soda amounted to 7.1% of production. 

Market prices are extremely volatile and follow cycles of advance and decline related to fluctuations ia global iaventories and world economic forces. For example, for northern bleached softwood kraft, which is considered a global benchmark pulp grade, market price went from 840/t ia 1990 down to 440/t ia 1993 as a result of oversupply and worldwide recession (3). By 1995 virtually all of the price losses had been recovered. 

Despite the attractions of economic forces driving environmental protection, some cautions and failures have been noted. Firstly, the export of hazardous waste to countries where costs for treatment are lower enhances environmental risks during transport and has the potential for transboundary export in the event of pollution. At the same time, the loss of raw material may deprive the home market of an adequate supply of feedstock for the home-based industry. Secondly, there is considerable scepticism that self-regulation of TBT-based antifoulants could be achieved in a timely manner by the shipping industry. This is an instance where the cost benehts to one industry are born by another commercial sector, notably aquaculture. Thus, protection of the marine environment is likely to be aided by economic factors but the role of government, via taxation and standard setting, is not likely to be usurped. Public education and, in turn, pressure, can promote and support corporate environmentalism. 

Nematode parasites present a serious problem for most animals and for humans in developing countries. These parasites produce various symptoms including ill thrift, poor growth, diarrhoea and, in around 1 % of cases, loss of life. The economic forces are such that new drugs for the treatment of nematode parasites have been developed first for animal use and only later for human use. A recent example is the development of the antibiotic anthelmintic, ivermectin, which was introduced first for the treatment of cattle nematode parasites and has subsequently been used to control river blindness , an eye condition seen in west Africa caused by farvae of Onchocerca volvulus. 

Historically, the production of coke from coal resulted from the pressures exerted by environmental and economic forces. In the late 1500s, demand for wood in England began to surpass supply. At that time, wood was converted into charcoal for use as a reductant of iron ore by the burgeoning metallurgical industries. By 1710, Abraham Darby of Coalbrookdale m Shropshire, England, commercialized the production of pig iron by utilizing the coke from coal... 

Many U.S. companies are supporting the implementation of hydrogen. They can compete effectively on an international basis and build a real economic force. A key part of our security is to build equipment that can be exported to our allies. Our industrial base can then enjoy access to world markets. 

Global production of roundwood was 3335 million in 1999 (3352 million m in 2000), about 50 % of which was as fuel wood, of which 90 % was consumed in developing countries. Industrial roundwood production (1550 million m in 1999) was dominated by developed countries (79 % of total annual production). This trend will change, in particular with the emergence of China as a major economic force. 

The intent of the symposium upon which this book is based was to (1) identify the technical and economic forces that are crucial for the successful production of chemicals from synthesis gas and methanol within an ever-changing world economic climate, (2) delineate the present state of technical development for the chemicals most likely to be commercially produced from synthesis gas and methanol, and (3) provide useful new mechanistic insights into these and closely related processes that will speed development of the field. This volume contains chapters written by most of the speakers from that symposium. In addition, several complementary chapters have been added for subject balance. The result is a volume that covers technical and economic aspects of most of the new industrially interesting synthesis gas- or methanol-based chemical processes. 

This consideration as well as those concerning cost, convenience of use, and availability leads to the conclusion that petroleum fuels will be used for transportation purposes in preference to other fuels as long as crude petroleum is available. Although liquid fuels can be produced from gas, coal, or shale oil, the high energy losses involved in the conversion make such operations unattractive from an energy conservation point of view. Obviously, the direct utilization of gas and coal as produced and of the type of crude oil which can be produced from oil shale by simple retorting is the most desirable procedure and should be followed until petroleum is so scarce or expensive to find that the free play of economic forces dictates the synthesis of liquid fuels. 

Although the methods and materials described are adequate to construct commercial irradiators today, economic forces will ultimately require the use of higher specific activities than are used today. An example will perhaps illustrate this point. Suppose one desires to build an irradiator to pasteurize strawberries. Peak loads and therefore design loads would be about 10,000 pounds per hour. About 10 kw. of radiation power at reasonable over-all efficiencies, or about 670,000 curies of 60Co, would be required. If the radiation source were made up at 2 curies per gram, one would require 4000 BNL strips in 1000 irradiation cans at a cost of 100,000 at 20 curies per gram, 400 strips in 100 irradiation cans at a cost of 10,400 ... 

Tourist destinations, even more than basic consumer products such as food or household items, are viewed and presented in selective and diverse ways. Tourist places are not just used or promoted by the tourism industry, but are frequently shaped by marketing efforts. In this sense tourism forms and reforms its own product. At the same time, other community and economic forces also shape the destination. As Hughes suggests ... 

There are strong economic forces that demand rational methods for the development of new catalysts. These were discussed in the introductory chapter of a recent book on catalyst design [1]. Although catalysts represent only about 1.5 billion in sales volume, they contribute to the manufacture of about 300 billion in product value (U.S., 1985), an economic leverage of about 200 1. Table 1 shows some of the numbers in perspective Table 2 [1] shows a breakdown of catalyst consumption (U.S., 1984). 

Haas, Ernst B. (1958) The Uniting of Europe Political, Social and Economic Forces. Stanford University Press, California. 

So economic forces within the chemical industry are compelling improved capital productivity. Requirements for on-aim product quality control grow increasingly tighter. More energy integration occurs. Im-... 

In contrast to people in other advanced nations, people in the U.S. value choice, competition, individual and family accountability, and volxmteerism, and are skeptical of the government. As in other nations, political and economic forces have further shaped the U.S. health system, specifically the system of health insurance. As a result, people in the U.S. tolerate a three-tiered system of coverage those with private health insurance, those with public insurance, and those without any coverage. Any reforms are likely to reflect the core values of individual accountability, voluntary participation, and a level of confidence in market forces. 

What the future holds for oil supply and demand has been the subject of a number of recent books, with conflicting viewpoints expressed on such issues as the time-scale for reaching the Hubbard Peak in oil production, current oil reserve estimates, the ability of economic forces to drive exploration and expansion of oil reserves, and the role of more difficult to obtain and expensive sources of oil (such as tar sands) to satisfy demand. A related issue to natural oil supply is the dependence of many nations, including the U.S., on imported oil for the bulk of their energy requirements and the impact this has on their national security. Historically, in terms of national policies, energy security has typically translated into short-term military security. 

It is obvious that the chemical industry is a major economic force in the United States, and that the organic chemical and organic product sectors are dominant components. 

Digital tools provide instantaneous distributed access to original experience. In a paperless world, one that is mobile, wireless, and extremely portable, customers seek data versus documents. Documents have become data embedded in inseparable multiple layered architectures. Technological and economic forces have essentially redefined document formats and purposes. The goal is more and more to preserve or re-create the immediacy of a communicative act, just-in-time delivery, real-time updates. 

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