Direct utilization

Miertus S, Scrocco E and Tomasi J 1981 Electrostatic interactions of a solute with a continuum. A direct utilization of ab initio molecular potentials for the provision of solvent effects Ohem. Rhys. 55 117-25... 

S. Miertus, E. Scrocco and J. Tomasi, Electrostatic Interaction of a Solute with a Continuum. A Direct Utilization of ab initio Molecular Potentials for the Prevision of Solvent Effects, Chetn. Phys. 55,117 (1981). 

Man is able to directly utilize only a small portion of the energy of the Earth s atmosphere. Indeed, excessive concentrated energy in the atmosphere—hurricanes and tornadoes—represents risks to mankind. Most human demands created by atmospheric conditions involve consumption of energy to maintain comfort. The ambient surface air temperature, for instance, determines how much energy is needed for heating or cooling demands and the level of outside... 

Lund, J. W. (1996). Lectures on Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy. United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme Report 1996-1. Reykjavik, Iceland. 

The ultimate direct utilization of electrochemical promotion in commercial reactors (in the chemical industry and in automotive exhaust catalysis) will depend on several technical and economical factors6 which are intimately related to the following technical considerations and problems ... 

Algae have the ability to directly utilize sunlight and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Due to this activity, cyanobacteria may help to solve a global environmental problem, the greenhouse effect, which increasingly threatens mankind at the beginning of the 21st century. 

Y. Wang, H. N. Brown, D. E. Crowley, and P. J. Szaniszlo, Evidence for direct utilization of a siderophore, ferrioxamine B in axenically grown cucumber Plant Cell Environ. 76 579 (1993). 

Beasley et al. developed a panel of immunoassays to monitor DDT, its metabolites, and structurally related compounds, but they found that milk has a severe effect on the assay performance. They found that when directly utilizing whole milk, color development was completely inhibited. Even when using 1 100 dilutions of whole milk, the assay sensitivity was reduced by 90% (based on the IC50 shift, not simply the dilution factor). A number of procedures were evaluated to eliminate the interferences from the fat-soluble analytes. However, many of the procedures that removed interferences also removed the analytes. Extraction with a mixture of solvents and the use of similarly processed blank milk to prepare the standards ultimately yielded more accurate results. This article demonstrates the difficulties encountered in analyzing lipid-soluble analytes. 

The great power of mechanistic enzymology in drug discovery is the quantitative nature of the information gleaned from these studies, and the direct utility of this quantitative data in driving compound optimization. For this reason any meaningful description of enzyme-inhibitor interactions must rest on a solid mathematical foundation. Thus, where appropriate, mathematical formulas are presented in each chapter to help the reader understand the concepts and the correct evaluation of the experimental data. To the extent possible, however, I have tried to keep the mathematics to a minimum, and instead have attempted to provide more descriptive accounts of the molecular interactions that drive enzyme-inhibitor interactions. 

Equation (4-5) can be directly utilized in statistical mechanical Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations by choosing an appropriate QM model, balancing computational efficiency and accuracy, and MM force fields for biomacromolecules and the solvent water. Our group has extensively explored various QM/MM methods using different quantum models, ranging from semiempirical methods to ab initio molecular orbital and valence bond theories to density functional theory, applied to a wide range of applications in chemistry and biology. Some of these studies have been discussed before and they are not emphasized in this article. We focus on developments that have not been often discussed. 

Use values are defined as the utility one person gains from using the good or service, for example walking in the forest or fishing. This use value includes direct and non-direct values. The direct use value is the value attributed to direct utilization of ecosystem services. Non-direct-use value or functional value relates to the ecological function performed, e.g. by forests, such as the protection of soils and the regulation of watersheds [19]. 

The concentration of organic materials in seawater is too low to merit direct utilization of many of the modern analytical instruments concentration by a factor of a hundred or more is necessary in many instances. Furthermore, the water and inorganic salts interfere with many of the analytical procedures. Separation of the organic components from seawater therefore accomplishes two purposes it removes interfering substances, and at the same time concentrates enough organic matter to make analysis possible. It is not surprising that considerable effort has been put into methods of separation and concentration. 

The production of methanol from synthesis gas is a well-established process (23, 102), and there have been predictions that methanol itself could become the fuel of the future (103). Whether or not this prediction will prove correct is debatable4 meanwhile, Mobil suggests that coupling known methanol production technology with their new process provides an economically attractive alternative to both Fischer-Tropsch fuels and direct utilization of methanol (104). 

Singh, P., Ruka, R.J., and George, R.A Direct utilization of hydrocarbon fuels in high temperature solid oxide fuel cells, In Proc 24 1 intersociety energy conversion engineering conference. Pub. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, 1989, pp 1553 1563. 

As an example of the selective reactivity of borazirconocene alkenes, their hydrolysis was examined [1]. The carbon—zirconium bond is more reactive than the carbon—boron bond towards various electrophiles, and so hydrolysis can be expected to occur with preferential cleavage of the former bond. Since hydrolysis of alkenylzirconocenes is known to proceed with retention of configuration [4,127—129], a direct utility of 45 is the preparation of (Z)-1-alkenylboronates 57 (Scheme 7.17) [12]. Though the gem-dimetalloalkenes can be isolated, in the present case it is not necessary. The desired (Z)-l-alkenylboronates can be obtained in a one-pot procedure by hydrozirconation followed by hydrolysis with excess H20. The reaction sequence is operationally simple and is compatible with various functional groups such as halides, acetals, silanes, and silyloxy protecting groups [12]. 

Lee SI, Ahn K, Vohs JM, and Gorte RJ. Cu-Co bimetallic anodes for direct utilization of methane in SOFCs. Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 2005 8 A48-A51. 

Direct use of coal as a primary fuel is often the most efficient and economic method of utilizing this important energy resource. In many cases, however, certain undesirable properties of coal make direct utilization difficult. Coal is a solid and requires more effort to handle, measure and control than gases or liquids. Coal is usually contaminated with ash and other undesirable components and has widely variable chemical and physical properties. As a result, there is often a need to convert coal into more convenient and cleaner forms of energy and products. Before considering the basic principles of coal conversion, some important characteristics of fossil fuels will be reviewed. 

Direct utilization of metallic Ti as dopant to prepare Ti-doped NaAlH4 offers a clear potential to achieve high hydrogen capacity. Material structural/compositional design is a feasible way to further improve hydrogen storage performance of Ti-NaAIRt system. 

If it is necessary to conduct a risk assessment relating to a specific source of lead (let us say a suspect public drinking water supply), the typical risk assessment would require the development of an exposure assessment relating to that specific source. This ordinary type of assessment would result in some estimate of the range of daily doses (pg/kg b.w.) that individuals using the water could incur. But that dose estimate has no direct utility (1) there are no RfDs developed for specific sources, but rather the target for health protection is based on a blood lead level and (2) the individuals consuming water are no doubt exposed to other sources of lead that contribute to health risk. 

There have already been a number of excellent reviews describing many aspects of SOFC, and we will not try to duplicate that literature. For information on stack designs and cells operating on H2 or on synthesis gas (a mixture or H2 and CO) produced by reforming, we refer the reader to those other reviews. In this review, we will focus on recent work aimed at operating SOFC directly on hydrocarbon fuels and on anode materials that are compatible with direct hydrocarbon utilization. We have further restricted the scope to the performance and analysis of single-cell systems. While stacks that operate directly on hydrocarbons will likely need to be different from more traditional stacks, the development of direct-utilization SOFC is still in its infancy, with only one report of preliminary data on the stack level. 2 ... 

There has been some controversy in the literature over precisely what should be called direct oxidation or direct utilization of hydrocarbons in an SOFC. As pointed out by Marina and Mogensen and Park et al., direct, electrochemical oxidation of complex hydrocarbons is unlikely to occur in one step. Even in the case of methane, the reaction produces eight electrons and must almost certainly occur in multiple steps. 

First, we will refer to the direct use of hydrocarbon fuels in an SOFC as direct utilization rather than direct oxidation. Second, we recognize that the broadest definition of direct utilization, exclusive from mechanistic considerations, should include rather conventional use of fuel by internal reforming, with steam being cofed to the fuel cell with the hydrocarbon. Indeed, this nomenclature has been used for many years with molten-carbonate fuel cells. However, because internal reforming is essentially limited to methane and because the addition of steam with the fuel adds significant system complexity, we will focus primarily on systems and materials in which the hydrocarbons are fed to the fuel cell directly without significant amounts of water or oxygen. 

Ceria, particularly when doped with Gd203 or SmzOs," has received some attention for direct hydrocarbon conversion in SOFC. Dating back to Steele and co-workers,interesting properties have been demonstrated for ceria-based anodes in direct utilization of methane. Later work suggested that the performance of ceria-based anodes in hydrocarbons could be improved by the addition of precious-metal catalysts, at dopant levels,but the performance of these cells was still too low for practical considerations. The problem with doped ceria is likely that its electronic conductivity is not sufficient. In general, the electrode material should have a conductivity greater than 1 S/cm in order to be practical since a conductivity of 1 S/cm would lead to a cell resistance of 0.1 Q cm for an electrode thickness of 1 mm, even... 

Figure 1 also contains a drawing of the electronic structure of plastocy-anin (Penfield et al., 1981, 1985), oriented according to the first part of Fig. 1. The d-orbital plane appears to be normal to the peptide plane that is extended by the hydrogen-bonding pair the it orbital of the thiolate would then also be affected, poising the cluster for electron transfer and, interestingly, apparently in the direction utilized by the multi-copper protein ascorbate oxidase (see Section V,A).

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