Wildlife

The key decision is then whether the acceptable body burden in the target species is exceeded. Canada has derived Tissue Residue (i.e., body burden) Guidelines for the Protection of Wildlife Consumers of Aquatic Biota for several substances (e.g., DDT, methylmercury, PCBs), and the EU WFD permits the establishment for some substances of a body-burden EQS recalculated as an equivalent concentration in water (Lepper 2005), but there are few other approaches of this type. As indicated, 

To date, it is widely recognized that PFCs are ubiquitous in biota, and the topic has been reviewed by Houde et al. [136] and Lau et al. [23]. PFSAs and PFCAs have been measured globally in invertebrates [87, 88, 109,188,189], fish [85, 87, 88, 106, 109, 124,187,190-192], reptiles [106, 193], birds [87,106,190,192,194-197], and terrestrial [187,198] and marine [87, 106, 107, 119, 190, 192,199-208] mammals. The pattern of contamination in biota is complex and varies among species and locations. 

The majority of biological monitoring studies to date have focused on PFOSA, PFSAs and PFCAs. FTCAs and FTUCAs have been observed in some species, including seabirds and seals from the Canadian Arctic [107, 197], suggesting that FTOHs may be a source of the observed PFCAs. Two studies have also investigated the presence of other FSAs in biological samples. Tomy et al. [87] have observed NEtFOSA in an Eastern Arctic marine food web, while Taniyasu et al. [182] have observed NEtEOSA in beaver fiver samples. 

The undesirable effects of chlorinated pesticides and PCB are closely associated with their tendency to accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals, where they are found at concentrations rising to hundred of parts per million. By contrast, the concentrations reported for the C1-C2 chlorocarbons are of the order of a few parts per billion which is three to five orders of magnitude lower [43]. The significant compounds (Table 7) are chloroform and carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene and methyl chloroform. Methyl chloride, methylene chloride and ethylene dichloride were not detected but the analytical method used did not resolve lower MW compounds while traces of hexachloro-butadiene were found in some marine organisms from an area known to receive industrial effluents. The compounds found in the animals were also found in a few samples of marine algae but at the time of sampling, the analytical method for methyl chloride was not adequate to show its presence. 

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Other Biological Applications. 4-Nitro-3-(trifluorometh5i)phenol [88-30-2] (TFM) is stiU employed by the Canadian Bureau of Fisheries and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a lampricide for the control of parasitic sea lamprey in the Great Lakes (see Aquaculture). 

R. Eisler, Molybdenum Ha rds to Fish, Wildlife, and Invertebrates M Synoptic Keview, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biology Report No. 85 (1.19), 1989,... 

Marine and estuarine aquatic and wildlife criteria not available freshwater criteria are used (by EPA). 

Pesticide Assessment Guidelines, Data Requirements Subdivision D, Product Chemistry E, Ha ard Evaluation—Wildlife and Aquatic Organisms F, Ha ard Evaluation—Human and Domestic Animals G, Product Peformance H, Eabeling , Experimental Use Permits J, Ha ard Evaluation—Nontafget Plants K,... 

W. J. Hayes, Jr., and E. R. Laws, Jr., eds.. Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif., 1990. Three volume set provides detailed toxicological profiles of more than 250 insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides each compound described by identity, properties, and uses toxicity to humans, laboratory animals, domestic animals, and wildlife includes comprehensive coverage of diagnosis, treatment, prevention of injury, effects on domestic animals, wildlife, and humans - ISjOOO references. 

Interior Department Interior land management, fish and wildlife. Geological Survey, mines, surface mining and reclamation... 

Prevention of Significant Deterioration. EPA originally issued regulations for Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) in December 1974 to protect clean air areas. Three air quaUty classes were designated Class I to protect pristine areas. Class II to allow moderate development, and Class III to permit more intensive development. Most areas in the United States were initially designated as Class II. Many large national parks and wildlife areas have been classified as Class I. 

R. A. Dolbeer, USDd—dPHIS Denver Wildlife Center dnimal Kepellents Keport, U.S. Armed Eorces Pest Management Board, Washington, D.C.,... 

Extension Publication 18, Vo. 11, Dept, of Natural Resources, NYSC Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., 1980 Supplement No. 120, Extension Wildlife and Sea Grant, University of California, Davis, Calif., Oct. 1979 Extension Information Bull No. 146, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., 1978. 

Malaria affects an estimated 270 million people and causes 2—3 million deaths annually, approximately one million of which occur in children under the age of five. While primarily an affliction of the tropics and subtropics, it has occurred as far north as the Arctic Circle. The disease essentially has been eradicated in most temperate-zone countries, but some 1100 cases of malaria in U.S. citizens returning from abroad were reported to the Centers for Disease Control during 1990. Malaria is seen today in Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central and South America. It is on the increase in Afghanistan, Brazil, China, India, Mexico, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. Escalation of the disease is because of the discontinued use of the insecticide DDT which effectively kills mosquito larvae, but has been found to be toxic to Hvestock and wildlife. Also, chloroquine (6), a reUable dmg for the prophylaxis and treatment of falcipamm malaria, is ineffective in many parts of the world because of the spread of dmg-resistant strains. 

When it approved the New Animal Drug AppHcation (NADA) of formalin, FDA ruled that use of formalin for fisheries was safe for humans and the environment. They ruled that effluents from fish treatments at 250 mg/L should be diluted 10 times and from egg treatments 75 times if 1,000 —2,000 mg/L were used (10,11). Before registering the compound, FDA also addressed carcinogenicity by stating it was not concerned about human exposure from either water or fish treated with formalin. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) has procedural guidelines that should protect workers from harm fill levels of formalin. Calculations based on treatment levels demonstrated that a fishery worker is exposed to not more than 0.117 mg/L formalin in the air, well below the levels estabUshed by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration to protect workers. 

Pish and Wildlife Service and University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, Littie Rock, Ark, 1989. 

The identification of PCB residues in fish, wildlife, and human tissues has been reported since the 1970s (9—13,20—26). The results of these analytical studies led to the ultimate ban on further use and production of these compounds. The precise composition of PCB extracts from biota samples is highly variable and depends, in part, on the specific analyte and the commercial PCB preparations associated with a contaminated area (14). PCBs found in a composite human milk sample from Michigan (26) were highly complex, and the congener composition and their relative concentrations did not resemble any of the commercial PCB preparations. This fact raises obvious problems with regard to the ha2ard assessment of PCB mixtures (27). 

J. P. Hickey, A. Aldridge, D. R. May Passino, A. M. Frank, Expert System Predicts Aquatic Toxicityfrom Contaminant Chemical Structure,NMoa-A Fisheries Research Center-Great Lakes, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1991 Ibid., Drug Information Journal 26, 487 (1992). 

During a forum convened by the World Wildlife Fund and the Conservation Foundation in May 1990, various steering committees recommended that a three-part life-cycle model be adopted. This model consists of the following ... 

T. Colborn and C. Clement, Advances in Modern Environmental Toxicology Volnme XXL Chemically-Induced Alterations in Sexual and Functional Development The Wildlife/Human Connection, Princeton Scientific, New Jersey, 1992. 

Institute for Environment and Health Assessment Al, Environmental Oestrogens Consequences to Human Health and Wildlife, lEH, Leicester, 1995. 

Further research was needed to confirm the existence and severity of the reported adverse trends in the reproductive health of both humans and wildlife. 

P.T. C. Harrison, P. Holmes and C. D.N. Humfrey, Sci. Total Environ., 1997, 205, 97. European Commission DGXll, Report EUR 17549 European Workshop on the Impact of Endocrine Disrupters on Hnman Health and Wildlife, Brussels, 1997. 

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