Nuclear facilities

On Russia territory there are about 100 thousands of dangerous enterprises and objects, comprising about 1500 nuclear facilities and 3000 chemical and biological extremely hazardous objects. The average period of emergency situations is 10 — 15 years for accidents and disasters with the material loss up to 2 billion USDs, and 15 — 45 days, when the material loss is up to 100 million USDs. 

A variety of nuclear reactor designs is possible using different combinations of components and process features for different purposes (see Nuclear REACTORS, reactor types). Two versions of the lightwater reactors were favored the pressurized water reactor (PWR) and the boiling water reactor (BWR). Each requites enrichment of uranium in U. To assure safety, careful control of coolant conditions is requited (see Nuclearreactors, water CHEMISTRY OF LIGHTWATER REACTORS NuCLEAR REACTORS, SAFETY IN NUCLEAR FACILITIES). 

DOE, 1994, Preparation Guide for U.S. Department of Energy Nonreactor Nuclear Facility Safety Analysis Reports, DOE-STD-3009-94, July... 

Gregory, W. S. and B. D. Nichols, 1991, EXPAC User s Manual A Computer Code for Analyzing Explosion-Induced Flow and Material Transport in Nuclear Facilities, LA-1 1823-M, LANE, July. 

Nichols, B. D. and W. S. Gregory, 1986, FIRAC User s Manual A Computer Code to Simulate Fire Accidents in Nuclear Facilities, NUREG/CR-4561 (LA-10678-M), LANL, April. 

The pathway of plutonium dissolved in natural water, from a source such as a nuclear facility, to man, may be quite complicated. During the transport, the plutonium atoms encounter dissolved and particulate inorganic and organic matter, as well as minerals in rocks, sediment and soil, and living organisms which may metabolize the plutonium. Figure 1 depicts some of the more essential routes for plutonium between the point of emission and the plutonium consuming man. The overall effect of these pathways is that plutonium is slowly eliminated from the water, so that only a minor fraction of it reaches man. An example of this is that of the 4.2 tonnes of plutonium deposited on the earth after... 

Pathways of dissolved plutonium from a nuclear facility to man. Dashed squares and wavy lines refer to predominantly liquid compartments and flows. 

Am released into water from nuclear facilities will stick to particles in the water or the sediment at the bottom of the body of water into which it was released, and some may be carried along by... 

Am levels in surface seawater of the North Sea and North Atlantic Ocean have stayed around 10 Bq/m3 (270 pCi/m3) between 1976 and 1988 (Pattenden and McKay 1994), but may be considerably higher near discharges from nuclear facilities. 241 Am in soil resulting from cumulative deposition and ingrowth in the New York region should reach a maximum of 0.88 mCi/km2 (33 MBq/km2) in the year 2035. In the Food... 

Am may enter surface water from nuclear power plants sited on the shores. A region of possible concern is the Great Lakes where 35 nuclear facilities are located in the lakes basin. A sample of water from Lake Ontario collected in 1985 and fdtered through a 0.45 pm Millipore filter contained 0.3 mBq 241Am/L (8 fCi/L) (Platford and Joshi 1986). A few water samples from the Savannah River, which received runoff and discharges from the DOE Savannah River Plant, contained 0.05 fCi 241Am/L (2 pBq/L), about the same levels as other American rivers (DOE 1980). 

Using transfer factors derived for uptake into plants and animals, Friberg and Vesanen (1999) have listed critical activity levels for americium and other nuclides deposited on soil and pasture vegetation from a nuclear accident required to exceed the action level for foodstuffs recommended by the IAEA. Experiments have been conducted to assess uptake of241 Am and other radionuclides from fallout or nuclear facilities in plants. 

Information is available on the levels of241 Am in soil and sediment in areas affected only by global fallout, at DOE installations and other nuclear facilities, as well as sites of nuclear explosions and accidents (Alberts et al. 1989 Bennett 1979 Cooper et al. 1994 DOE 1980 Pattenden and McKay 1994 Robison et al. 1997a, 1997b Sanchez et al. 1996). 241Am levels in soil around nuclear power plants in the United States were indistinguishable from fallout background (EPRI 1981). 

Nuclear plants operate in 17 of the 24 states that have opened their electricity markets. The nuclear facilities in those 17 states account for 60 of the 103 operating reactors in the United States. 

Martin, Co. (anonym) Radioactive Materials Laboratory Safety Report, Martin Nuclear Facility, Quehanna Site. Report MND-2410 (Sept. I960). 

In "Tc samples of two kinds of brown algae (one is IAEA seaweed Ag-1 Fucus serrantus taken from the Irish Sea near the Sellafield nuclear facility and the other is Fucus vesiculosus taken from the same area) measured by Koide and... 

The Instrumentation and Control Fundamentals Handbook was developed to assist nuclear facility operating contractors provide operators, maintenance personnel, and the technical staff with the necessary fundamentals training to ensure a basic understanding of instrumentation and control systems. The handbook includes information on temperature, pressure, flow, and level detection systems position indication systems process control systems and radiation detection principles. This information will provide personnel with an understanding of the basic operation of various types of DOE nuclear facility instrumentation and control systems. 

The Department of Energy (DOE) Fundamentals Handbooks consist of ten academic subjects, which include Mathematics Classical Physics Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow Instrumentation and Control Electrical Science Material Science Mechanical Science Chemistry Engineering Symbology, Prints, and Drawings and Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory. The handbooks are provided as an aid to DOE nuclear facility contractors. 

The Department of Energy Fundamentals Handbook entitled Instrumentation and Control was prepared as an information resource for personnel who are responsible for the operation of the Department s nuclear facilities. A basic understanding of instrumentation and control is necessary for DOE nuclear facility operators, maintenance personnel, and the technical staff to safely operate and maintain the facility and facility support systems. The information in the handbook is presented to provide a foundation for applying engineering concepts to the job. This knowledge will help personnel more fully understand the impact that their actions may have on the safe and reliable operation of facility components and systems. 

Instrumentation provides the various indications used to operate a nuclear facility. In some cases, operators record these indications for use in day-to-day operation of the facility. The information recorded helps the operator evaluate the current condition of the system and take actions if the conditions are not as expected. 

In the case of nuclear facilities, the input and output are defined by the purpose of the control system. A knowledge of the input and output of the control system enables the components of the system to be identified. A control system may have more than one input or output. 

This chapter will describe two controllers commonly found in nuclear facility control rooms. Although plants may have other types of controllers, information presented here will generally apply to those controllers as well. 

An important safety feature is provided by the spring in an actuator. It can be designed to position a control valve in a safe position if a loss of supply air occurs. On a loss of supply air, the actuator in Figure 36 will fail open. This type of arrangement is referred to as "air-to-close, spring-to-open" or simply "fail-open." Some valves fail in the closed position. This type of actuator is referred to as "air-to-open, spring-to-close" or "fail-closed." This "fail-safe" concept is an important consideration in nuclear facility design. 

Columbia River, Washington near nuclear facility, 1961, 239Np, muscle ... 

Plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, near nuclear facility, England 1968 vs. 1969, 137Cs Gut contents 44-181 FW vs. 126-266 FW 35... 

DOE Order 5480.23 specifies that hazard and accident analyses be included in safety analyses for nuclear facilities. Likewise, DOE Order 5481.IB, "Safety Analysis and Review System," requires hazard and accident analyses be included for non-nuclear facilities. Two nuclear SAR topics overlap with the PrHA. 

The requirements of DOE-STD-1027-92 are used as the basis for identifying the overlap of nuclear facility safety analysis requirements with the requirements of the PSM Rule. 

According to DOE-STD-1027-92, the level of hazard analysis required for a nuclear facility SAR is determined by the facility s nuclear hazard classification as follows. 

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