High level waste research

See for example Electrometallurgical Techniques for DOE Spent Fuel Treatment Final Report, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 2000 Alternatives for High-Level Waste Salt Processing at the Savannah River Site, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 2000. 

After the separation of the actinides from the high-level waste, it is desirable to remove certain other fission products from the nuclear wastes. Some Cs and Sr are low-charged cations that react well with macro-cyclic ligands (e.g., crown ethers, calixarenes). Research to synthesize and investigate the properties of macrocyclic ligands for application in nuclear waste treatment has been an active effort internationally. Some of the results obtained are discussed in section 12.7. 

Defense high-level wastes are those produced as a result of military research during the recovery of the uranium and plutonium used in making fission and fusion bombs. 

High-level waste (HLW), intermediate-level waste (ILW), and low-level waste (LLW) are produced at all stages of the nuclear fuel cycle as well as in the non-nuclear industry, research institutions, and hospitals. The nuclear fuel cycle produces liquid, solid, and gaseous wastes. Moreover, spent nuclear fuel (SNF) is considered either as a source of U and Pu for re-use or as radioactive waste (Johnson Shoesmith 1988), depending on whether the closed ( reprocessing ) or the open ( once-through ) nuclear fuel cycle is realized, respectively (Ewing, 2004). 

Esh, D. W., Goff, K. M., Hirsche, K. T., Battisti, T. J., Simpson, M. F., Johnson, S. G. Bateman, K. J. 1999. Development of a ceramic waste form for high level waste disposal. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 556, 107-113. 

Hawkins, H. T., Sheetz, B. E. Gutrie, Jr., G. D. 1997. Preparation of monophasic (NZP) radiophases Potential host matrices for the immobilization of reprocessed commercial high-level wastes. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 465, 387-394. 

Roderick, J. M., Holland, D. Scales, C. R. 2000. Characterization and radiation resistance of a mixed-alkali borosilicate glass for high level waste vitrification. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 608, 721-726. 

Sobolev, I. A., Stefanovsky, S. V., Ioudintsev, S. V., Nikonov, B. S., Omelianenko, B. I., Mokhov, A. V. 1997c. Study of melted Synroc doped with simulated high-level waste. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 465, 363-370. 

Cherniavskaya, N. E. 2000a. Phase compositions and elements partitioning in two-phase hosts for immobilization of rare earth - actinide high level waste fraction. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, 608, 455-460. 

Weber, W. J., Ewing, R. C. et al. 1997. Radiation effects in glasses used for immobilization of high level waste and plutonium disposition. Journal of Materials Research, 12, 1946-1975. 

Fielding, P. E. White, T. J. 1987. Crystal chemical incoiporation of high level waste species in alu-minotitanate-based ceramics valence, location, radiation damage, and hydrothermal durability. Journal of Materials Research, 2, 387-414. 

Cunnane, J. C. Allison, J. M. 1994. High-level waste glass compendium what it tells us concerning the durability of borosilicate waste glass. In Murakami, T. Ewing, R. C. (eds) Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management XVIII. Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings, 333,3-14. 

Scholze, H., Conradt, R., Engelke, H. Roggendorf, H. 1982. Determination of the corrosion mechanisms of high-level waste containing glass. In Lutze, W. (ed) Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management V. Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings, 11, 173-180. 

In the past ten years the number of chemistry-related research problems in the nuclear industry has increased dramatically. Many of these are related to surface or interfacial chemistry. Some applications are reviewed in the areas of waste management, activity transport in coolants, fuel fabrication, component development, reactor safety studies, and fuel reprocessing. Three recent studies in surface analysis are discussed in further detail in this paper. The first concerns the initial corrosion mechanisms of borosilicate glass used in high level waste encapsulation. The second deals with the effects of residual chloride contamination on nuclear reactor contaminants. Finally, some surface studies of the high temperature oxidation of Alloys 600 and 800 are outlined such characterizations are part of the effort to develop more protective surface films for nuclear reactor applications. ... 

Early statutory definitions of high-level waste are contained in the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (MPRSA, 1972) and the West Valley Demonstration Project Act of 1980 (WVDPA, 1980). These definitions are consistent with the definition developed by AEC. 

Requirements for Disposal. The National Security and Military Applications of Nuclear Energy Authorization Act (NSMA, 1980) established the current DOE program for disposal of defense transuranic waste at the WIPP facility in New Mexico. The Act specifically authorized test emplacements of waste for purposes of research and development. WIPPLWA (1992) then authorized permanent disposal of defense transuranic waste at this facility. The Act specifies that the WIPP facility may not be used for disposal of high-level waste, commercial transuranic waste, or any DOE non-defense transuranic... 

Research Needs for High-Level Waste Stored in Tanks and Bins at U.S. Department of Energy Sites, National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2001. 

Radioactive wastes of concern include wastes that result from operation of the nuclear fuel cycle (mining, fuel fabrication, reactor operation, spent fuel reprocessing, and waste storage), from nuclear weapons testing, and from medical and research activities. In recent years, the emphasis has been on predicting the behavior of disposed high-level wastes in deep geologic... 

The act requires major efforts in two primary areas, disposal and storage of spent fuel and high-level waste. This program is to be financed by a fee of 1 mil/KWhr of nuclear power produced, collected from utilities. The act provides for cooperative research, development, and demonstration activities at utility sites and federal sites. 

Thus, the view from Washington is an optimistic one. With support of the vast amount of research, development and engineering that scientists and engineers have completed and will do in the future, this country certainly is now headed towards a successful and orderly program for handling all radioactive wastes safely and inexpensively. The high-level waste program, for instance, will require only about 2% of the cost of electricity produced from nuclear power. 

The FNFCC would probably be controlled by a Board of Directors, nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Initial financing could come from assessments against utilities for reprocessing of existing spent fuel, as for the new high-level waste program. An assessment of 3 mils per kilowatt hour of nuclear electricity produced would probably fund all operations of the FNFCC, and all of the nuclear power research, development, and demonstraton presently funded in the DOE budget. 

Some research groups worldwide are currently working on the application of membrane technology to the treatment of radioactive liquid wastes with different levels of activity, from low to high activity waste. Research is mainly focused on wastes from the nuclear industry. However, the nuclear industry is not the only source of radioactive wastes medical and research applications of radioisotopes also generate radioactive wastes. 

High-Level Waste Management Research and Development Program at Oak Ridge National Laboratory... 

The processes being developed at PNL convert the commercial high-level wastes to glasses or related ceramic forms. These materials offer the best practicable immobilization of radioisotopes, in a highly concentrated form, available today the AEG is also sponsoring continuing research on potentially more advanced solidified waste forms which may become available at a later date and offer added increments of safety or processing economy. 

The waste management research and development program at PNL may be summarized as consisting of (a) a mainline effort to develop near-term technology for the fixation of commercially-produced high-level wastes in silicate glass or ceramic forms, and (b) a comprehensive examination of potential advanced waste forms, a study which may offer further increments of safety or economy over the long term. 

T he probable growth of electrical generating capacity by the year 2000 has been projected to be about 1750 X 109 watts. Of this the total nuclear capacity is estimated to be 800 X 109 watts. We are well aware that major by-products of the nuclear power industry are the radioactive wastes involved. The U. S. Energy Research and Development Administration predicts a total of about 100,000 Megacuries of high level wastes produced by the year 2000. 

Nuclear waste is divided into three categories. High-level waste, which is the most radioactive component, forms about 0.2 % of the whole. It is derived mainly from weapons applications and spent nuclear fuel rods. In addition there is about 20% intermediate-level waste, which arises from similar sources and is increased by materials used in reprocessing. This component is not very radioactive and does not liberate large amounts of heat. The remainder, described as low-level waste, is material that is slightly radioactive. Apart from military and nuclear energy sources, this material comes from hospitals, research laboratories and industry, and includes contaminated paper towels, gloves and laboratory equipment. 

M. Furuichi, Research on sealing systems of high level waste repository. Doctor degree thesis from Hokkaido University, 20(X) (in Japanese). 

---