Environmental conditioning

GFRP samples of size 60 mm x 12.5 mm x 3.5 mm cut from the panels were subjected to six basic environmental conditions. These were cold (subzero dry, CD), cold (subzero wet, CW), hot (elevated temperature dry, HD), hot (elevated temperature wet, HW), ultraviolet radiation (UV) and alternate ultraviolet radiation and condensation (UC). In addition, room temperature (RT) condition samples (neat, 1 and 2 wt%) were used to generate baseline data. 

For cold-dry and cold-wet conditioning, the samples were kept with or without water in a box in a refrigerator. For hot-dry conditioning, the samples 

For ultraviolet radiation (UV) and alternate ultraviolet radiation and condensation (UC) conditioning, the samples were kept in a QUV/Se weathering chamber (Q-Panel Lab Products, Cleveland Ohio). The samples were conditioned to UV radiation only and to alternate exposure to UV radiation for 4 hours followed by condensation for 4 hours. Phelps and Long [52] reported that thermal energy was sufficient to break bonds in cured epoxy, thus the temperature in the QUV chamber was elevated to provide accelerated degradation maintained at 60°C. The conditioning for this set was carried out for 5, 10 and 15 days. 

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The X-ray microtomography has been used for a variety of applications. Most spectacular applications can be found in those areas, where three-dimensional internal structures can only be visualized non-destructively and/or in normal environmental conditions. 

In the wide field of applications, a visibility level VL = 3 - 60 is recommended. For our recognition task, we are obliged to take into account that our random conditions are far from the experimental conditions of the basic researches (Young test person with a high visus under ideal environmental conditions) [4]. Furthermore in our case we have a more difficult visual searching task. Parameter variations as the increase of presentation time from 0,2 to 1.0 s. and the detection propability from 50% to 100% are taken into account [5] In spite of the gliding variations of the parameters as well as the visibility level, for simplification let us assume VL = 10 as minimum requirement. 

Attenuation is also an important factor in air-bome ultrasound. For exampe, attenuation in air at 1 MHz is 1.2 dB/cm, compared with a figure of 0.0022 dB/cm in water [1]. In addition, environmental conditions (temperature, turbulences) can affect the inspection with air-bome... 

In certain alloys and under certain environmental conditions, selective removal of one metal (the most electrochemically active) can occur that results in a weakening of the strength of the component. The most common example is dezincification of brass [164, 165]. The residual copper lacks mechanical strength. 

Unlike catfish, tilapia, trout and salmon, that produce several hundred to several thousand eggs per female, many marine species produce large numbers of very small eggs. Hundreds of thousands to millions of eggs are produced by such species as haUbut, flounders, red dmm, striped bass, and shrimp. Catfish, salmon, and trout spawn once a year, while tilapia and some marine species spawn repeatedly if the proper environmental conditions are maintained (1). Red dmm, for example, spawn every few days for periods of several months when light and temperature and properly controlled (10). 

Only relatively few compounds can act as primary explosives and still meet the restrictive military and industrial requirements for reflabiUty, ease of manufacture, low cost, compatibiUty, and long-term storage stabiUty under adverse environmental conditions. Most initiator explosives are dense, metaHoorganic compounds. In the United States, the most commonly used explosives for detonators include lead azide, PETN, and HMX. 2,4,6-Triamino-l,3,5-triuitrobenzene (TATB) is also used in electric detonators specially designed for use where stabiUty at elevated temperatures is essential. 

Rocket Propellants. SoHd rocket propellants are mostly based on chemically cross-linked polymeric elastomers to provide the mechanical properties required in launchings and the environmental conditions experienced in storage, shipment, and handling (see Elastomers, synthetic). Double-and triple-based nitrocellulose propellants are also employed as rocket propellants. 

Deterioration. Paintings are composite objects that have high vulnerabiUty. The various materials are adhered to each other, especially in a laminated stmcture, to form a source of potential trouble. Any dimensional change in one of the components or between the components as a consequence of changes in environmental conditions results in a strain on the adhesion of the various parts. Strains can lead to failure of the adhesion. This is one of the principal causes of losses in panel paintings, where the dimensional changes in the wooden support cause losses in adhesion between the paint layer and the support. 

No conservation treatment can completely undo damages to art objects. However, damage can often be prevented (171—173). Many deterioration processes are dependent upon environmental conditions. 

R. P. B ringer, "Influence of Unusual Environmental Conditions on Eluorocarbon Plastics," paper presented at SMMPE (Society ofMerospace Material and Process Engineers) Symposium, St. Louis, Mo., May 7—9,1962. 

Additives have the same effect on thermoplastic foaming processes as on thermoset foaming processes. Environmental conditions are important in this case because of the necessity of removing heat from the foamed stmcture in order to stabilize it. The dimensions and size of the foamed stmcture are important for the same reason. 

Knock is caused by unwanted chemical reactions in the combustion chamber. These reactions are a function of the specific chemical species which make up the fuel and the environmental conditions to which the fuel is subjected during the compression and power stroke in the engine. Therefore, both the chemical makeup of the fuel and the engine design parameters must be considered when trying to understand knock. 

Biorational approaches have proven useful in the development of classes of herbicides which inhibit essential metaboHc pathways common to all plants and thus are specific to plants and have low toxicity to mammalian species. Biorational herbicide development remains a high risk endeavor since promising high activities observed in the laboratory may be nullified by factors such as limitations in plant uptake and translocation, and the instabiHty or inactivity of biochemical en2yme inhibitors under the harsher environmental conditions in the field. Despite these recogni2ed drawbacks, biorational design of herbicides has shown sufficient potential to make the study of herbicide modes of action an important and growing research area. 

Advanced composites and fiber-reinforced materials are used in sailcloth, speedboat, and other types of boat components, and leisure and commercial fishing gear. A ram id and polyethylene fibers are currentiy used in conveyer belts to collect valuable offshore minerals such as cobalt, uranium, and manganese. Constmction of oil-adsorbing fences made of high performance fabrics is being evaluated in Japan as well as the constmction of other pollution control textile materials for maritime use. For most marine uses, the textile materials must be resistant to biodeterioration and to a variety of aqueous pollutants and environmental conditions. 

Heat. Personal monitoring of the environmental conditions which impose a heat stress on a worker is impractical, so fixed station measurement of such parameters as wet bulb globe temperature are usually made (see Temperature measurements). These stations are carefully selected so that the results, plus worker location and workload data, can be combined to yield an overall heat stress estimate. Heat strain, the effect on the human, can be estimated from core body temperature, but this is usually only a research tool. 

Although thermal performance is a principal property of thermal insulation (13—15), suitabiHty for temperature and environmental conditions compressive, flexure, shear, and tensile strengths resistance to moisture absorption dimensional stabiHty shock and vibration resistance chemical, environmental, and erosion resistance space limitations fire resistance health effects availabiHty and ease of appHcation and economics are also considerations. 

Automotive and architectural laminates of PVB develop maximum impact strength near 20°C, as shown in Figure 2. This balance is obtained by the plasticizer-to-resin ratio and the molecular weight of the resins. It has been adjusted to this optimum temperature based on environmental conditions and automobile population at various ambient temperatures. The frequency and severity of vehicle occupant injuries vs temperature ranges at the accident location have been studied (5), and the results confirm the selection of the maximum performance temperature and decreasing penetration resistance at temperature extremes. 

Reliability. The rehabiUty of a system is defined as the probabiUty that the system will perform its intended function satisfactorily for a specified interval of time when operating under stated environmental conditions. It has to be realized that supposedly identical products fail at different times, thus rehabihty can be quantified only as a probabiUty. For any product there is some underlying function that describes this success pattern. Typical reUabiUty functions are shown in Figure 1 for two different products. These products can be compared at the same rehabihty level R or the rehabihty levels can be compared for any selected time period, t. ... 

The rehabihty level of a product also depends on the operating or environmental conditions, which may produce a variety of failure modes. Rehabihty can only be assessed relative to a defined environment. Unless these points are estabhshed clearly, confusion surrounds any quoted rehabihty number for a product. 

Milk consists of 85—89% water and 11—15% total soflds (Table 1) the latter comprises soflds-not-fat (SNF) and fat. Milk having a higher fat content also has higher SNF, with an increase of 0.4% SNF for each 1% fat increase. The principal components of SNF are protein, lactose, and minerals (ash). The fat content and other constituents of the milk vary with the animal species, and the composition of milk varies with feed, stage of lactation, health of the animal, location of withdrawal from the udder, and seasonal and environmental conditions. The nonfat soflds, fat soflds, and moisture relationships are well estabhshed and can be used as a basis for detecting adulteration with water (qv). Physical properties of milk are given in Table 2. 

Other Coordination Complexes. Because carbonate and bicarbonate are commonly found under environmental conditions in water, and because carbonate complexes Pu readily in most oxidation states, Pu carbonato complexes have been studied extensively. The reduction potentials vs the standard hydrogen electrode of Pu(VI)/(V) shifts from 0.916 to 0.33 V and the Pu(IV)/(III) potential shifts from 1.48 to -0.50 V in 1 Tf carbonate. These shifts indicate strong carbonate complexation. Electrochemistry, reaction kinetics, and spectroscopy of plutonium carbonates in solution have been reviewed (113). The solubiUty of Pu(IV) in aqueous carbonate solutions has been measured, and the stabiUty constants of hydroxycarbonato complexes have been calculated (Fig. 6b) (90). 

Degradable plastic is a plastic designed to undergo a significant change in its chemical stmcture under specific environmental conditions, resulting in a loss of some properties that may vary as measured by standard test methods appropriate to the plastic and the appHcation in a particular period of time that determines its classification. 

Favorable polymer physical properties include water solubiUty and sample purity. Environmental conditions to consider in evaluating biodegradabihty are temperature, pH, moisture, oxygen, nutrients, suitable microbial population (fungal, algae, bacterial), concentration, and test duration. 

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