Electrical characterization methods

High quality one-dimensional copper sulfide (CuS) nanorods (50-200 nm) have been demonstrated using template assisted electrochemical deposition, a sonoelec-trochemical method. Thus generated nanorods were also electrically characterized as p-type semiconductors [64]. In this process, ultrasound assists the electrochemical deposition by the combination of any of the following three processes ... 

One problem with methods that produce polycrystalline or nanocrystalline material is that it is not feasible to characterize electrically dopants in such materials by the traditional four-point-probe contacts needed for Hall measurements. Other characterization methods such as optical absorption, photoluminescence (PL), Raman, X-ray and electron diffraction, X-ray rocking-curve widths to assess crystalline quality, secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), scanning or transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), cathodolumi-nescence (CL), and wet-chemical etching provide valuable information, but do not directly yield carrier concentrations. 

Shibata, T. Muranushi, Y. Miura, T. Kishi, T. 1991. Electrical characterization of 2H-SnS2 single crystals synthesized by the low temperature chemical vapor transport method. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 52 551-553. 

The electrical characterization of polar media is crucial to investigate their suitability for ferroelectric memories, piezo- or pyroelectric devices and many other ferroelectric applications (see Chapter 3). Optical characterization of polar media is fundamental to investigate their ser-vicability for electro-optic devices or applications in the field of nonlinear optics (see Chapter 4). Additionally there are intentions to characterize polar media with a combination of both, electrical and optical methods, such as to understand ferroelectric phenomena that are influenced by the action of light. 

The topic of this book is focused on active masses containing carbon, either as an active mass (e.g., negative mass of lithium-ion battery or electrical double layer capacitors), as an electronically conducting additive, or as an electronically conductive support for catalysts. In some cases, carbon can also be used as a current collector (e.g., Leclanche cell). This chapter presents the basic electrochemical characterization methods, as applicable to carbon-based active materials used in energy storage and laboratory scale devices. 

Finally, we have proposed a model framework for copper CMP simulation. Characterization methods (masks with physical, electrical test structures) for single- and multi-level pattern-dependencies are also under development, and we are pursuing ways to overcome challenges in model parameter extraction and validation. 

A few selected techniques that are representative of recent advances are described as examples of the much broader field of semiconductor electrical characterization. In particular, resistivity, carrier concentration, junction depth, generation/recombination lifetime, deep level transient spectroscopy and NOSFET mobility measurements are discussed. The importance of non-contacting methods is stressed and recent trends in this direction are outlined. This paper serves as an introduction to some of the following papers in this volume. 

Most electrical characterization techniques require physical contacts between the wafer and the measuring instrument. They can be nonpermanent contacts (e.g. four-point probe) or permanent contacts (e.g. evaporated metal). For some applications such permanent contacts are not permissible. They may, for example, create damage or leave residues that are deleterious during subsequent processing. Non-contacting methods allow complete inspection of all wafers because no physical contact is made. 

Optical techniques like photoluminescence (10) and infrared photothermal spectroscopy (11.) work well for the characterization of shallow level impurities, while electrical techniques work well for deep level impurities. There are a number of methods that have been used for electrical characterization. I will only discuss deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS), however, because it has become the most popular and gives a fairly complete characterization. 

The description of a colloid should include particle size, mobility, charge and their distributions, charge/mass ratio, electrical conductivity of the media, concentration and mobility of ionic species, the extent of a double layer, particle-particle and particle-substrate interaction forces and complete interfacial analysis. The application of classical characterization methods to nonaqueous colloids is limited and, for this reason, the techniques best suited to these systems will be reviewed. Characteristic results obtained with nonaqueous dispersions will be summarized. Physical aspects, such as space charge effects and electrohydrodynamics, will receive special attention while the relationships between chemical and physical properties will not be addressed. An application of nonaqueous colloids, the electrophoretic development of latent images, will also be discussed. 

Electrical measurements are among the most ancient methods used to characterize samples at high pressures. Indeed, before the advent of diamond-anvil cells (DACs), they were the most often used characterization methods in belt-type or multianvil devices at pressures above 2 GPa for the detection of solid-solid phase transitions—upon which the so-called fixed-point pressure scale was based (see Section 2.2 in Chapter 2). 

Jamieson D N 1998 Structural and electrical characterization of semiconductor materials using a nuclear microprobe Nucl. Instrum. Methods B 136-138 1... 

Biomaterials such as natural gums are extracted from living matter. The molecules forming these biomaterials are known to be very complex in nature. Water content in biomaterials is an essential characteristic of them. The water content plays a crucial role in its physical properties like electrical conduction through it. Since these materials are either a covalent or a hydrogen bonded system they cannot be used and tested at temperatures above 120°C. It is apparent, therefore, that not all conventional methods of material characterization can be applied. Thus, as a method of material characterization, some of the conventional methods are used in a restricted way so as to retain the biomaterial characteristics. The characterization method used in the study of natural gum Arabica is summarized in the following sections. 

Semiconductor materials have had to meet progressively more stringent requirements as the density and performance of semiconductor devices has increased. This trend will continue. The purity of the matoial, the dimensions of the devices, and the electrical properties require higher precision in their measurement and the ability to determine the device parameters to a resolution and sensitivity that pushes measurement techniques to their very limit. Semiconductor measurements cover a broad range of techniques and disciplines. After a brief listing of optical and physicall chemical characterization methods we give in this chapter a discussion of the general trend in electrical characterization and present a few examples of the charactmzation techniques used today. 

Electrical characterization is the most common characterization method. It gives electrically relevant information but it generally does not uniquely identify impurities the way the other two characterization methods do. The most useful electrical characterization techniques determine the following device parameters... 

Due to the unique nature of CPs, preparation methods and physieal properties of CPNWs differ considerably from those of many inorganic nanoscale materials. In this chapter, we intend to review the studies on this important category of materials. The review focuses on the following aspects (i) preparation of CPNWs, (ii) transport properties and electrical characterization, and (iii) potential applications. The primary concentration of this chapter will be on individual CPNWs. 

Yoshino, K., Fukushima, T.,and Yoneta, M. Structural, optical and electrical characterization on ZnO fihn grown by a spray pyrolysis method. Journal of Material Science Materials in Electronics, 16(7), 403 08 (2005). 

Ri, the internal resistance, is a critical parameter and it can be calculated from electrical characterization of an MFC. A polarization curve measurement is a popular method to extract / ,. An example of polarization curve is shown in Fig. 3. At low current density, activation resistance dominates, and the voltage across external load drops very fast with the increase of current. When the current density increases to be an intermediate range, the voltage versus current profile becomes approximately linear, indicating ohmic resistance dominates. As the current density further increases, the increase rate slows down and the voltage drops quickly this is because the concentration resistance dominates. 

Characterization of textiles that have both a classical textile dimension and an extra electrical one needs consideration. Compared to classical electrical devices, textiles are soft, flexible, and of poor dimension stability. Using conventional electrical measurement methods and devices may result in imprecise or even wrong measurement results. In this chapter, the suitable resistance measurement methods for both conductive fibers and yams and textiles are introduced. Special measurement devices are demonstrated. In addition, the measurement dynamic electrical properties, ie, the electromechanical properties, are also presented. 

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