Consumer accountable

The direct medical costs of care usually are associated with monetary transactions and represent costs that are incurred during the provision of care. Examples of direct medical costs include payments for purchasing a pharmaceutical product, payments for physicians fees, salaries of allied health professionals, or purchases of diagnostic tests. Because the charge for medical care may not accurately reflect the resources consumed, accounting or statistical techniques may be needed to determine direct costs. 

Starch and its derivatives can be produced from several raw materials including corn, wheat, pea, potato, and tapioca and, in general, its production follows local raw material availability. In 2006 European (EU-25) production of starches, modified starches and refinery products was approximately 8.6 Mio tons. The main consumer, accounting for 4.5 Mio tons, was the food industry, followed by the paper and board sector with 2.4 Mio tons, the pharmaceutical and chemical sector with 1.2 Mio tons and the industrial binders sector with 0.6 Mio tons (Figure 9.2.1). 

Relatively high waste levels characterize the fresh vegetable market. Nowadays, the food chain from producer to consumer accounts for 32-39% waste. The loss at retail level is estimated at 2 till 6% and at wholesale level at 2 till 10% (Pegge et al, 2004). This paper takes 4% for the retail and 6% for the wholesale level as starting point. This results in an a of approximately 0.04 and in a (3 of 0.06. The wholesaler must buy approximately 111 units of product from the producer. After waste deduction 104 units will remain. The supermarket needs these 104 imits to sell eventually 100 units to the consumer. 

Of the industries that consume explosives, coal mining is the largest consumer, accounting for 66 percent of all the commercial explosives... 

Rao et al., 2006 Sakakibara et al., 2009). Annually around 30,000 tons of xylitol are produced by the chemical hydrogenation of xylose (Tamburini et al., 2010). The current xylitol market is around 340 million. The global consumption was 43,000 tons in 2005 the major consumers accounting, for 30% and 37%, respectively, were the United States and Western Europe. The chemical process of production is not ecofriendly, which further increases the capital investment and costs for xylitol production (Prakash et al., 2011). 

In describing reactor performance, selectivity is usually a more meaningful parameter than reactor yield. Reactor yield is based on the reactant fed to the reactor rather than on that which is consumed. Clearly, part of the reactant fed might be material that has been recycled rather than fresh feed. Because of this, reactor yield takes no account of the ability to separate and recycle unconverted raw materials. Reactor yield is only a meaningful parameter when it is not possible for one reason or another to recycle unconverted raw material to the reactor inlet. By constrast, the yield of the overall process is an extremely important parameter when describing the performance of the overall plant, as will be discussed later. 

The simulation of the actual distortion of the eddy current flow caused by a crack turns out to be too time consuming with present means. We therefore have developed a simple model for calculating the optimum excitation frequencies for cracks in different depths of arbitrary test sarriples Using Equ. (2.5), we are able to calculate the decrease in eddy current density with increasing depth in the conductor for a given excitation method, taking into account the dependence of the penetration depth c on coil geometry and excitation frequency. 

A catalyst is a material that accelerates a reaction rate towards thennodynamic equilibrium conversion without itself being consumed in the reaction. Reactions occur on catalysts at particular sites, called active sites , which may have different electronic and geometric structures than neighbouring sites. Catalytic reactions are at the heart of many chemical industries, and account for a large fraction of worldwide chemical production. Research into fiindamental aspects of catalytic reactions has a strong economic motivating factor a better understanding of the catalytic process... 

The three principal domestic uses for rice in 1988 were direct food (61%), processed food (18%), and beer (20%). The direct food use figure includes the conventional white milled rice plus specialty rice products (parboiled, precooked, aromatic, brown, and prepackaged mixes) shipped directly from the rice mills. The specialty products account for approximately one-fifth of the direct food use. Approximately two-thirds of the direct food use rice is ultimately distributed to consumers through retail outlets and one-third through food service outlets. 

Only very recently have the government and other health agencies bowed to the preponderance of clinical, experimental, epidemiological, and historical evidence that moderate consumption of wine is not only not detrimental, but is beneficial. The proven benefit is in lowered incidence of cardiovascular complications in wine consumers. This apparently accounts for the relative health in this regard of people in Erance, Italy, and other Mediterranean countries even though their diet is otherwise less healthful (more fat particularly). 

Three forms of caustic soda are produced to meet customer needs purified diaphragm caustic (50% Rayon grade), 73% caustic, and anhydrous caustic. Regular 50% caustic from the diaphragm cell process is suitable for most appHcations and accounts for about 85% of the NaOH consumed in the United States. However, it caimot be used in operations such as the manufacture of rayon, the synthesis of alkyl aryl sulfonates, or the production of anhydrous caustic because of the presence of salt, sodium chlorate, and heavy metals. Membrane and mercury cell caustic, on the other hand, is of superior quaUty and... 

There are a relatively small number of producers of halogenated flame retardants, especially for brominated flame retardants, where three producers account for greater than 80% of world production. Table 10 gives estimates of the volumes of brominated and chlorinated flame retardants used worldwide. Volumes of flame retardants consumed in Japan have been summarized (61). Prices of halogenated flame retardants vary from less than 2.00/kg to as high as 13.00/kg. Cost to the user depends on the level of use of the specific flame retardant and other factors such as the use of stabilizers. 

United States Imports of Spices and Oleoresins. The consumption of spices has continued to increase in the United States into 1993 (7). The demand for ethnic foods, and the trend toward less salt, glycerides, and fat, has stimulated more spice and condiment use. The United States consumes approximately 25% of the spices produced in the world. In 1993, imports accounted for about 65% of U.S. seasoning needs compared to 80% in the early 1980s. In 1991 approximately 50% by value of U.S. imported spices entered New York, the principal port of entry around 1983 more than 75% was imported through this port. The volume of spices and oleoresins (spice extracts) into the United States has been increasing steadily, but the value of imports has varied because of specific shortages and large price variations (Table 1). 

Most of the HCl produced is consumed captively, ie, at the site of production, either in integrated operations such as ethylenedichloride—vinyl chloride monomer (EDC/VCM) plants and chlorinated methane plants or in separate HCl consuming operations at the same location. Captive use of anhydrous HCl accounted for 80—85% of the total demand in 1989. The combined merchant market for anhydrous and aqueous HCl in that same year was about 9.1 X 10 metric tons on the basis of 100% HCl (see Table 12) (73). 

Lead [7439-92-17, Pb, is an essential commodity ia the modem iadusttial world, ranking fifth ia tonnage consumed after iron (qv), copper (qv), aluminum (see Aluminumand aluminum alloys), and 2iac (see Zinc and zinc alloys). In 1993, the United States accounted for 30% of the 4,450,000 metric tons of refined lead consumed by the Western world. Slightly over half of the lead produced ia the world now comes from recycled sources (see Recycling, NONFERROUS LffiTALS). 

The United States consumption of manganese is distributed between three industries iron and steelmaking, where 88% of the Mn is consumed the manufacture of batteries, where 7% is used and chemical usage, which accounts for the remaining 5%. United States manganese demand is shown in Figure 12. 

For 1976 the Consumer Product Safety Commission estimated that the total of all flame producers, ie, book matches (made from cardboard), iadividual (wooden) stick matches, and lighters, amounted to 645 x 10 of such fire resources or "lights." Paper matches accounted for about 65% or 420 x 10 , lighters for 25% or 160 X 10 , and wooden matches, the remaining 10% or 65 x 10 . ... 

Processing costs include those for size reduction, size classification, minerals concentration and separations, soHd—Hquid separation (dewatering), materials handling and transportation, and tailings disposal. Size reduction, one of the most expensive unit operations in minerals processing, could account for as much as 50% of the total energy consumed. This cost varies considerably from deposit to deposit and quite often from one area of a deposit to another. Ore bodies are extremely heterogeneous and the associated minerals Hberation, complex. 

More than two-thirds of the naphthenic acid produced is used to make metal salts, with the largest volume being used for copper naphthenate, consumed in the wood preservative industry (see Wood). Metal salts used as paint driers accounted for only 16% of the naphthenic acid market in 1993 (see Paint). This is a dramatic contrast with 1977 usage, when 75% of the naphthenates went into the paint drier market. An overall view of the 1993 naphthenic acid market in North America shows the following uses ... 

In the evaluation of these parameters, the chain of plutonium isotopes produced and consumed must be taken into account. Successive neutron captures create plutonium-239, -240, -241, and -242. Isotopes having odd mass number are fissile, the others are not. 

In the United States, fibers and injection mol ding are the main appHcations for polypropylene (Table 8), followed by film. In Europe and Japan, injection mol ding appHcations predominate (Table 10). This market area is more likely to decline in economic recession, as consumers postpone purchases of apphances and automobiles. Film appHcations are important in both regions, but fibers are a much less important use for polypropylene in Japan than in other developed regions. The heavy use of polypropylene nonwovens in the manufacture of disposable diapers and similar products, and the wide use of polypropylene carpets in the United States, account for the greater consumption of fibers. 

Organophosphoms compounds, primarily phosphonic acids, are used as sequestrants, scale inhibitors, deflocculants, or ion-control agents in oil wells, cooling-tower waters, and boiler-feed waters. Organophosphates are also used as plasticizers and flame retardants in plastics and elastomers, which accounted for 22% of PCl consumed. Phosphites, in conjunction with Hquid mixed metals, such as calcium—zinc and barium—cadmium heat stabilizers, function as antioxidants and stabilizer adjutants. In 1992, such phosphoms-based chemicals amounted to slightly more than 6% of all such plastic additives and represented 8500 t of phosphoms. Because PVC production is expected to increase, the use of phosphoms additive should increase 3% aimually through 1999. 

Liquid phosphate esters, eg, tricresyl phosphate [1330-78-5] are one of two types of fire-resistant hydraulic fluids (qv). Fire-resistant fluids account for less than 10% of the total fluids market. Phosphoms-based fluids generally are stable at high temperatures in addition to being fire resistant. Approximately 10,000 t of organophophoms compounds were used in hydraulic fluids in 1994. The manufacture of these materials consumed ca 4000 t of POCI3. 

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