Global basis

Increased energy efficiency. Increasing energy efficiency and the introduction of cogeneration reduce CO2 emissions. Remember that emissions should be viewed on a global basis, as discussed in Chap. 10. 

Increase energy efficiency of the process. Increasing the energy efficiency decreases the fuel burnt and hence decreases SO, emissions at the source. Again, the emissions should be viewed on a global basis. 

On a global basis the consumption of organic pigments (4) by various industries in 1991 is detailed in Table 12. 

The data ia Table 2 represent the total MDI (MDI and PMDI) that is produced on a global basis. 

The pattern of commercial production of 1,3-butadiene parallels the overall development of the petrochemical industry. Since its discovery via pyrolysis of various organic materials, butadiene has been manufactured from acetylene as weU as ethanol, both via butanediols (1,3- and 1,4-) as intermediates (see Acetylene-DERIVED chemicals). On a global basis, the importance of these processes has decreased substantially because of the increasing production of butadiene from petroleum sources. China and India stiU convert ethanol to butadiene using the two-step process while Poland and the former USSR use a one-step process (229,230). In the past butadiene also was produced by the dehydrogenation of / -butane and oxydehydrogenation of / -butenes. However, butadiene is now primarily produced as a by-product in the steam cracking of hydrocarbon streams to produce ethylene. Except under market dislocation situations, butadiene is almost exclusively manufactured by this process in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. 

Forests can act as sources of some of the trace gases in the atmosphere, such as hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, NO, and NH3. Forests have been identified as emitters of terpene hydrocarbons. In 1960, Went (10) estimated that hydrocarbon releases to the atmosphere were on the order of 108 tons per year. Later work by Rasmussen (11) suggested that the release of terpenes from forest systems is 2 x 10 tons of reactive materials per year on a global basis. This is several times the anthropogenic input. Yet, it is important to remember that forest emissions are much more widely dispersed and less concentrated than anthropogenic emissions. Table 8-2 shows terpene emissions from different types of forest systems in the United States. 

It was estimated in 1997 that by the turn of the century 185 million tonnes of ethylene would be consumed annually on a global basis but that at the same time production of polyethylene would be about 46000000t.p.a., i.e. about 25% of the total. This emphasises the fact that although polyethylene manufacture is a large outlet for ethylene the latter is widely used for other purposes. 

This international handbook will be updated regularly in order to meet our objective of including the most current scientific knowledge on a global basis. The plan is to also publish additional volumes to cover systems and... 

Solar energy offers a clean, sustainable alternative to continued use of fossil fuels. In its various forms it is already providing useful amounts of energy on a global basis, and will provide steadily increasing amounts in the twenty-first century, especially as developing countries require more energy to improve their economies. 

For higher pressure boilers, hydrazine remains the primary product employed on a global basis, although during the last 20 to 25 years a wide range of novel chemistry alternatives have been developed and promoted in the marketplace. For the most part, the chemistry is not new, merely the application. 

Rainwater and snowmelt water are primary factors determining the very nature of the terrestrial carbon cycle, with photosynthesis acting as the primary exchange mechanism from the atmosphere. Bicarbonate is the most prevalent ion in natural surface waters (rivers and lakes), which are extremely important in the carbon cycle, accoxmting for 90% of the carbon flux between the land surface and oceans (Holmen, Chapter 11). In addition, bicarbonate is a major component of soil water and a contributor to its natural acid-base balance. The carbonate equilibrium controls the pH of most natural waters, and high concentrations of bicarbonate provide a pH buffer in many systems. Other acid-base reactions (discussed in Chapter 16), particularly in the atmosphere, also influence pH (in both natural and polluted systems) but are generally less important than the carbonate system on a global basis. 

Though the hydrosphere continues to operate in response to the same forces it always has, humans have had an unmistakable role in altering some of its balances. In general, these impacts have had relatively little effect on the overall global water balance, and there is little chance that direct manipulation of the hydrosphere will alter water storage and cycling on a global basis. 

With increasing dominance of multinational personal care companies, there is an additional factor now to be considered when choosing the preservative the need for the same product formulation to be sold on a global basis. Hence a large manufacturer with operations in many sites around the world may prefer to have one single formulation which can be produced at any, or all, of their worldwide factories. This means that the preservative must meet all local and national regulations. The chart below summarises the position of some of the most widely used preservatives in the three key markets of USA, Europe and Japan. 

The fast reactor high level waste is accumulated at the reprocessing plants and retains its toxicity for only a few hundred years, rather than the tens of thousands of years ofthe spent fuel wastes from our present reactors,. Thus, the nuclear waste disposal problems are minimal and arrangements for disposal could be made on a global basis. 

Using the rock cycle as an example, we can compute the turnover time of marine sediments with respect to river input of solid particles from (1) the mass of solids in the marine sediment reservoir (1.0 x 10 g) and (2) the annual rate of river input of particles (1.4 X lO g/y). This yields a turnover time of (1.0 x 10 " g)/(14 x lO g/y) = 71 X lo y. On a global basis, riverine input is the major source of solids buried in marine sediments lesser inputs are contributed by atmospheric feUout, glacial ice debris, hydrothermal processes, and in situ production, primarily by marine plankton. As shown in Figure 1.2, sediments are removed from the ocean by deep burial into the seafloor. The resulting sedimentary rock is either uplifted onto land or subducted into the mantle so the ocean basins never fill up with sediment. As discussed in Chapter 21, if all of the fractional residence times of a substance are known, the sum of their reciprocals provides an estimate of the residence time (Equation 21.17). 

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