Breast PUFAs

In human breast milk, there are roughly 10 different LC-PUFA consistently detected, representing both the n-3 and the n-6 series and including AA and DHA (Koletzko et al, 2001). However, LA is the primary milk PUFA (Koletzko et al, 2001). Maternal intake of PUFA prior to (Koletzko et al, 2001) and during lactation is reflected in breast milk PUFA content (Hawkes et al, 2002). For example, DHA-rich tima oil supplementation was found to increase the DHA content of breast milk (Hawkes et al, 2002). 

Cabanes, A., Wang, M., Olivo, S., Gustafsson, J., and Hilakivi-Clarke, L. (2003). Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on breast cancer progression. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 12 (1305S). 

In a large trial (37) conducted in eight European countries— European Antioxidant Miocardial Infarction and Breast Cancer (EURAMIC) trial—the fatty acid composition, a-tocopherol, and /3-carotene levels were determined in adipose tissue of patients with acute Ml. The study supported the hypothesis that /3-carotene protects against Ml because it reduces the oxidation of PUFA. The concentration on adipose tissue was considered due to the dietary intake. 

Human breast milk is rich in aU types of PUFAs (11) this explains why breast-fed children are healthier compared with bottle-fed children. LA and ALA are present in significant amounts in dairy products, in organ meats such as liver, and in many vegetable oils such as sunflower, safflower, corn, and... 

Furthermore, a diet with low contents of FA may be involved in the development of insulin resistance, which suggests that an appropriate dietary intake of n-3 PUFA is considered protective against metabolic syndrome [183]. In addition, diverse psyquiatric impairs (depression, bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, autism) and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer disease have been associated to decreased blood levels of n-3 HUFA. Besides, there are many examples about the use of pol)nmsaturated FA as drugs. Thus, EPA has shown efficacy as adjunctive treatment, and in some cases as the only treatment in several psyquiatric disorders [184]. It is suggested that the potential of n-3 FA to prevent recurrence and metastasis of mammary cancer when used in adjuvant therapy is associated with a n-6 to n-3 ratio lower than 2 1 [185], On the other hand, fish intake is considered as a protective factor for preventing prostate cancer in addition, in humans low levels of ALA in mammary adipose tissue are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in women [186]. 

Reports have appeared in recent years suggesting that LC (n-3) PUFA inhibit the growth of some tnmors (Josynla and Schut, 1999 Singh et al., 1998). It has been shown in humans that the risk of breast tumors is increased by (n-6) and decreased by (n-3) PUFA. DHA is particularly potent, also in the absence of vitamin E (Bougnoux et al., 1999). 

Many studies have been conducted on marine fish oil consumption and relation to risk of breast or prostate cancer. The inhibition of eicosa-noids production from (B-6 PUFAs by higher consumption of fish oil with high levels of co-3 PUFAs, which is a common feature of lowering a cancer risk, was reported (Bagga et al, 1997 Terry et al, 2004). 

These dihydroxy-THFA inhibited breast cancer and prostate cancer cell proliferation at high doses (21). However, little is known about the biological functions and chemical properties of THFA and diepoxy bicyclic fatty acids. It is therefore of interest to use THFA and diepoxy bicyclic fatty acids converted from PUFA by strain ALA2 to discover novel industrial applications of cyclic fatty acids. 

Various sources of LC-PUFA for infant formula supplementation are available. They include fish oil, egg phospholipids, and single-cell oil. DHA is available primarily from the marine food chain, i.e., marine fish, shellfish, and algae. Although fish oil is the most readily available source of DHA, it has an undesirably high eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20 5n-3) level, which may interfere with AA status and growth (6). Consequently, the addition of both DHA and AA to infant formulas has been recommended. Egg phospholipid is another dietary source for DHA and AA. Direct addition of egg yolk to formula may produce phospholipid levels far greater than levels found in breast milk. However, a tracer experiment has demonstrated that DHA and AA are better absorbed in phosphoUpid form than in the triacylglyc-eride form found in breast milk and other LC-PUFA sources (7). 

Supplementation of meat animal diets with fish oil, and fish meal have been reported the degree to which an undesirable fishy flavor occurs depends on which of these is fed. The occurrence of a fishy flavor in bacon was related to the content of long-chain PUFA resulting from excessive supplementation of fish products in the diets of swine (Coxon et al., 1986). Miller et al. (1969) reported a dose-dependent response of long-chain PUFA, especially C20 5 and C22 5, in broiler breast and thigh with supplementation of menhaden fish oil. Undesirable fishy flavors were noted in tissues from birds receiving high levels of supplementation. The authors noted that supplementation of birds for 4 weeks, with subsequent withdrawal for the same time period, resulted in acceptable sensory scores. However, the fatty acid profile of meat from these birds also returned to that of controls. Miller et al. (1967) reported that specific n-3 fatty acids, C18 4, C20 4, C20 5 and C22 5, were associated with the unacceptable flavor of fish oil-supplemented broiler meat. Crawford and Kretsch (1976) identified 21 different volatile products associated with fishy flavor in meat from turkeys supplemented with tuna oil. 

The levels of palmitoleic and myristoleic (14 ln-5) acids in gluteal fat showed an inverse association with breast cancer risk in a multi-centre investigation performed in five European countries (Simonsen et al., 1998). On the other hand, increased levels of palmitoleic acid and decreased levels of PUFA have been reported in cultured cancer cells (Reynier et al., 1991) and in malignant tissues (Engelbrecht et al., 1998). 

The diet is believed to play an important role in the onset of carcinogenesis, and there are a number of carcinogens present in food, including mycotoxins, polycyclic hydrocarbons, and pesticides. Associations have been made between dietary fat intake and morbidity and mortality from breast and colon cancer. Another possible mechanism for the proposed protective effects against cancer of olive oil compared with sunflower oil involves diet-induced alterations in host immune responses. Both the type and concentration of dietary fats have been reported to influence immune status in several animal models. The PUFA Cigtz is necessary for T-cell-mediated immunity, but high intakes will suppress immune function and may therefore increase the risk of cancer. Furthermore, comparisons between the effects of diets rich in Ci8 2 and those rich in Cig i on varying indicators of immune function in mice have shown that, while dietary Ci8 2 predisposed... 

Further support for the need to balance the n-6 n-3 PUFAs comes from studies that clearly show the ability of both normal rat cardiomyo-cytes and human breast cancer cells in culture to... 

A number of studies from around the world indicate that human milk contains both LNA and LA and their long-chain n-6 and n-3 fatty acids, whereas cow s milk does not. The long-chain fatty acid composition of red blood cell membrane phospholipids may reflect the composition of phospholipids in the brain. Therefore, determination of red blood cell membrane phospholipids has been carried out by many investigators to determine the long-chain PUFA content in breast-fed and bottle-fed infants. As expected, the fatty acids 22 5n-3 and 22 6n-3 were higher in the erythrocytes from breast-fed infants than those from bottle-fed babies and the 20 3n-9 was lower in the erythrocytes of the breast-fed infants. 

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