Breast milk human

Comparison of Aluminum Levels ( g/L) in Breast Milk, Humanized Infant Formulae, and in Special Purpose Infant Formulae... 

It is noteworthy, however, that a Committee of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that choline be added to infant formulas in amounts equivalent to breast milk. Human milk contains about 145 mg of choline per liter, nearly 0.1% of total solids... 

The Comminee ol Ibe American Academy of Pe diatrics recomrnends that choline be added lo itlanl lormulas In amounis equivalent to breast milk. Human milk tmnlains about )45 mg ol choline pet liler, nearly 0.1% of lolal solids. 

Uses of lactose production by appHcation include baby and infant formulations (30%), human food (30%), pharmaceuticals (25%), and fermentation and animal feed (15%) (39). It is used as a diluent in tablets and capsules to correct the balance between carbohydrate and proteins in cow-milk-based breast milk replacers, and to increase osmotic property or viscosity without adding excessive sweetness. It has also been used as a carrier for flavorings. 

Human exposure to environmental contaminants has been investigated through the analysis of adipose tissue, breast milk, blood and the monitoring of faecal and urinary excretion levels. However, while levels of persistent contaminants in human milk, for example, are extensively monitored, very little is known about foetal exposure to xenobiotics because the concentrations of persistent compounds in blood and trans-placental transmission are less well studied. Also, more information is needed in general about the behaviour of endocrine disruptive compounds (and their metabolites) in vivo, for example the way they bind to blood plasma proteins. 

Bound glutamates in proteins are very common in food. Human breast milk contains ten times as much as cows milk, and tomato juice contains four times as much as breast milk. However, free glutamate, as found in soy sauce or prepared foods, enters the bloodstream much faster than the glutamates bound in proteins, which are released slowly during digestion. 

Dantrolene is the mainstay of MH treatment. It has long been available for the treatment of muscle spasm in cerebral palsy and similar diseases. It is a hydantoin derivative that was first synthesized in 1967, and reported to be effective in the treatment of porcine MH in 1975. Also in 1975, dantrolene was shown to be more effective than procainamide in the treatment of human MH, which until that time was the drug of choice. However, the intravenous preparation was not made available until November 1979. It significantly lowered mortality. The half-life of dantrolene is estimated to be 6-8 hr. Dantrolene s primary mode of action is the reduction in calcium release by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Dantrolene also exerts a primary antiarrhythmic effect by increasing atrial and ventricular refractory periods. Side effects of dentrolene include hepatotoxicity, muscle weakness, ataxia, blurred vision, slurred speech, nausea, and vomiting. Dantrolene is not contraindicated in pregnancy, but it does cross into breast milk and its effect on the neonate is unknown. 

The available evidence suggests that excretion of methyl parathion metabolites in humans and animals following acute oral exposure is essentially the same and occurs rapidly. Excretion occurs primarily via the urine. Methyl parathion can also be excreted in breast milk, although it has been detected only in a limited number of samples from women of central Asia, for which exposure data were not available (Lederman 1996) (see also Section 3.4.2.2). A study in rats also reported excretion of methyl parathion in the milk (Golubchikov 1991 Goncharuk et al. 1990). 

Renal excretion is the most important endosulfan elimination route in humans and animals. Biliary excretion has also been demonstrated to be important in animals. Estimated elimination half-lives ranged between approximately 1 and 7 days in adult humans and animals. Endosulfan can also be eliminated via the breast milk in lactating women and animals, although this is probably a relatively minor elimination route. No studies were located regarding known or suspected differences between children and adults with respect to endosulfan excretion. 

No data were located concerning whether pharmacokinetics of endosulfan in children are different from adults. There are no adequate data to determine whether endosulfan or its metabolites can cross the placenta. Studies in animals addressing these issues would provide valuable information. Although endosulfan has been detected in human milk (Lutter et al. 1998), studies in animals showed very little accumulation of endosulfan residues in breast milk (Gorbach et al. 1968 Indraningsih et al. 1993), which is consistent with the rapid elimination of endosulfan from tissues and subsequent excretion via feces and urine. There are no PBPK models for endosulfan in either adults or children. There is no information to evaluate whether absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of endosulfan in children is different than in adults. 

The developing human s source of nutrition changes with age from placental nourishment to breast milk or formula to the diet of older children who eat more of certain types of foods than adults. A child s behavior and lifestyle also influence exposure. Children crawl on the floor, put things in their mouths, sometimes eat inappropriate things (such as dirt or paint chips), and spend more time outdoors. Children also are closer to the ground, and they do not use the judgment of adults to avoid hazards (NRC 1993). 

Infants are particularly sensitive to endosulfan due to their higher intestinal permeability and immature detoxification system. In a study of human breast milk conducted in the country of Kazakhstan in 1994, the concentration of various contaminants, including endosulfan, were determined (Lutter et al. 1998). 

Public concern about PBDE levels in the environment was heightened when it was shown that a sharp increase in the concentration of certain PBDEs had occurred in human breast milk over only a 10-year period (Meironyte et al. 1999 Noren and Meironyte 2000), and the levels of exposure in some infants and toddlers were similar to those shown to cause developmental neurotoxicity in animal experiments (Costa and Giordano 2007). As a result of these concerns, the majority of commercial PBDE mixtures have been banned from manufacture, sale, and use within the European Union. 

Retroviruses Human T-cell leukaemia virus (HTLV-1) Spherical enveloped virus lOOnm in diameter, icosahedral cores contain two copies of linear RNA molecules and reverse transcriptase HTI.V is spread inside infected lymphocytes in blood, semen or breast milk. Most infections remain asymptomatic but after an incubation period of 10-40 years in about 2% of cases, adult T-cell leukaemia can result... 

Several studies of tissue distribution in humans after inhalation exposure to trichloroethylene report levels in the blood (Astrand and Ovrum 1976 Monster et al. 1976 Muller et al. 1974). Once in the bloodstream, trichloroethylene may be transported rapidly to various tissues where it will likely be metabolized. Trichloroethylene was detected in the blood of babies at birth after the mothers had received trichloroethylene anesthesia (Laham 1970), and detectable levels (concentrations not reported) have been found in the breast milk of mothers living in urban areas (Pellizzari et al. 1982). Post-mortem analyses of human tissue from persons with unspecified exposure revealed detectable levels of trichloroethylene (<1-32 pg/kg wet tissue) in most organs (McConnell et al. 1975). The relative proportions varied among individuals, but the major sites of distribution appeared to be body fat and the liver. 

Exposure Levels in Humans. This information is necessary for assessing the need to conduct health studies on these populations. Trichloroethylene has been detected in human body fluids such as blood (Brugnone et al. 1994 Skender et al. 1994) and breast milk (Pellizzari et al. 1982). Most of the monitoring data have come from occupational studies of specific worker populations exposed to trichloroethylene. More information on exposure levels for populations living in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites is needed for estimating human exposure. 

FRANKE A A, CUSTER L J and TANAKA Y (1998) Isoflavones in human breast milk and other biological fluids. Am J Clin Nutr. 68 (6 Suppl) 1466S-73S. 

A good example of the many successftil DfE Partnerships is the Furniture Flame Retard-ancy Partnerhip. Pentabromodiphenylether (PentaBDE) was the primary flame retardant used in low density, flexible polyurethane furniture foam. Due to concerns over its use and the fact that the chemical was found widespread in the environment and in human tissue and breast milk, PentaBDE was voluntarily phased out of production by US manufacturers in January 2004. The industry needed alternatives in order to meet furniture flame retardancy requirements, but did not have the human and environmental health and safety information needed in order to compare the alternatives. DfE worked with the furniture manufacturers, foam manufacturers, and flame-retardant chemical suppliers along with governmental and environmental groups to evaluate possible alternatives. 

Mechref, Y., Chen, P, and Novotny, M. V., Structural characterization of the N-linked oligosaccharides in bile salt-stimulated lipase originated from human breast milk, Glycobiology, 9, 227, 1999. 

Since no human data exist to determine its safe use in pregnant women, sibutramine is not recommended therefore, women of childbearing potential should use effective methods of contraception while taking sibutramine. Further, sibutramine is not recommended for lactating mothers because its excretion in breast milk is likewise unknown.29... 

Ogundele, M.O., Cytotoxicity of EDTA used in biological samples Effect on some human breast-milk studies, J Appl Toxicol, 19 (6), 395-400, 1999. 

High, E. G. and H. G. Day (1951). Effects of different amounts of lutein, squalene, phytol and related substances on the utilization of carotene and vitamin A for storage and growth in the rat. J. Nutr. 43 245-260. Johnson, E. J. et al. (1997). Beta-carotene isomers in human serum, breast milk and buccal mucosa cells after continuous oral doses of -trans and 9-cis beta-carotene. J. Nutr. 127(10) 1993-1999. 

The main rout of excretion of the drug and its metabolites is the kidney with a half-life of 9-18 h in human. In contrast to human, animal models have a lower elimination half-life ranging from 0.6-9 h [78]. The elimination half-life of valproic acid and some metabolites was found to be much longer in the neonates (40-50 h) than adult subjects (9-18 h) [78,81]. One study reported no difference between the elimination half-life between elderly and young subjects (15.4 and 13.0 h, respectively) while other found an increase in for older patients (14.9 versus 7.2 h for young patients) [78,90], Insignificant amounts of valproic acid are found in breast milk, approximately 3% of maternal drug levels [84]. 

PCDD/PCDFs accumulate in human adipose tissue, and the level reflects the history of intake by the individual. Several factors have been shown to affect adipose tissue concentrations/body burdens, notably age, the number of children and period of breastfeeding, and dietary habits. Breast-milk represents the most useful matrix for evaluating time trends of dioxins and many other POPs. Several factors affect the PCDD/PCDFs content of human breast-milk, most notably the mothers age, the duration of breast-feeding and the fat content of the milk. Studies should therefore ideally... 

The main route of excretion is via the faeces (biliary excretion), urine and breast-milk. Excretion through breast-milk results in transfer to breastfed infants, who therefore are highly exposed. There is also transfer across the placenta, thus causing fetal exposure. Perinatal exposure is a major concern with regard to human health effects, even at present background exposure levels. 

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