Diet, animal

Citrates. Iron citrate [2338-05-8] is a compound that contains citric acid and iron(II) and iron(III) in indefinite ratios. Iron(II) citrate [23383-11-1] and iron(III) citrate [28633-45-6] are also of indefinite stoichiometry, although iron(III) citrate which contains Fe and citric acid in a 1 1 ratio [3522-50-7] is known. These compounds dissolve slowly in water and are more readily soluble in hot water. The solution chemistry of these compounds is comphcated by formation of a number of monomeric and oligomeric species. All of the iron citrate compounds are used as supplements to soils and animal diets. 

Compounds in animal diets can exert their effects in the gastrointestinal tract or after absorption through the gut epithelial tissue into the bloodstream, or both. On some occasions the administered compounds may be applied topically (Table 1). 

Farmed animals tend to be subjected to compounds that can be classified more easily as drugs. In some cases, animals may encounter compounds in nature that have considerable limitations in inclusion in the diets of farmed animals. An example is the inclusion of zearalenone (Figure 1) and its derivatives in animal diets these have anabolic and oestrogenic properties " and are permitted to be used in some areas of the world but are prohibited from use in others, such as European Union countries. Thus this compound and its reduced isomers (zearalenols, zeranols) improve growth rates in animals but can cause reproductive problems, especially in pigs. Ralgro, which is a commercially prepared derivative of zearalenone, is used as an ear implant in beef cattle as a growth promoter in... 

The environmental effects of using drugs and additives in animal diets are... 

Unlike human trials. Institutional Review Boards/Independent Ethics Committees are not involved, while informed consent is only required from the owner of the trial animals. In addition to the standard items associated with human trials, aspects such as management and housing of animals, diet and disposal of trial animals and their produce should be included in the trial protocol. Studies may be blinded from the investigators in order to avoid bias in the reporting of animal observations. 

Ambrose, S.H. 1986 Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human and animal diet in Mrica. Journal of Human Evolution 15 707-731. 

Carhon isotope ratios of hone apatite and animal diet reconstruction. Nature 301 ... 

Halides Metal ion(s) + halogen ion Common salt (sodium chloride), a component of animal diets Fluorite (calcium fluoride), a lapidary material and flux... 

Precursors of phenylpropanoids are synthesized from two basic pathways the shikimic acid pathway and the malonic pathway (see Fig. 3.1). The shikimic acid pathway produces most plant phenolics, whereas the malonic pathway, which is an important source of phenolics in fungi and bacteria, is less significant in higher plants. The shikimate pathway converts simple carbohydrate precursors into the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. The synthesis of an intermediate in this pathway, shikimic acid, is blocked by the broad-spectrum herbicide glyphosate (i.e., Roundup). Because animals do not possess this synthetic pathway, they have no way to synthesize the three aromatic amino acids (i.e., phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan), which are therefore essential nutrients in animal diets. 

In recent years, numerous papers have been published about one of the most important groups of phytochemicals, the polyphenols (Manach and others 2004). These compounds, which possess an array of healthy properties, but also some disadvantages that will be discussed in this chapter, are present in a variety of plants used in both human and animal diets. However, the structure of this type of compound means that they can be oxidized by several pro-oxidant agents. The objective of this chapter is to describe the main enzymatic agents responsible for the degradation of polyphenols. In order to understand the mechanisms of degradation that will be described in the following sections, a brief summary of the main properties of the polyphenols is required. 

Interest in seed and vegetable proteins has been growing steadily over the past two decades because of the major role plant proteins play in both human and animal diets. Animal proteins are still acknowledged to have higher nutritional value than those from plant sources but for economic, health, or religious reasons,... 

Explanation of two terms mentioned above is in order. Osborne and Mendel had been successful in growing rats on the milk food diet. In order to have all the advantages of milk without the protein content, they developed what they called protein-free milk or p. f. m. Since their primary research concern lay with proteins and because milk was a complete food by itself, they assumed that if the water and proteins (mostly casein) were removed from milk the resultant product would have all the characteristics of milk while allowing the experimenters to introduce other proteins into animal diets. Osborne and Mendel would thereby be able to evaluate the nutritive value of any protein when it was fed with p. f. m. (26)... 

There is also another defensive secretion that sea hares release less readily than ink. This is a milky white liquid called opaline, so viscous that it can be stretched out through the air into a long string. For sea hares, opaline is what is known as a defining characteristic, because all sea hares emit opaline whereas no other species are known to do so. In spite of its defining role, opaline remains poorly understood. It contains proteins and perhaps components derived from the animals diet the evidence here is in dispute. A sea hare releases opaline less readily than ink but seems to do so as a second response to serious predatory assaults. When touched by a sea anemone s tentacles, a sea hare discharges a shot of opaline, which causes the anemone s tentacles to contract. No one yet understands how opaline deters predators or what chemicals are responsible for its activity. 

These findings show clearly that even when the animal diets are uniform, highly distinctive urinary excretion patterns are exhibited. The results with different inbred strains show that inheritance is the basic reason for the differences in pattern. It would require extremely extensive genetic studies to demonstrate the inheritance process for each item, but this does not seem crucially important from the standpoint of elucidating the phenomenon of individuality. 

Raw slurry was collected and prepared by diluting fresh excreta from fattening pigs with tap water to a standard concentration of total solids (TS) 30 g/1 and chemical oxygen demand (COD) 38 g/1. The methods of excreta collection, the animal diets, and the slurry... 

Toxicity Tests. Assays for toxicity were conducted on ICR female mice weighing approximately 20 g each. Animals were maintained on Wayne Laboratory Animal diets (Lab-Blox) and water, ad libitum. A known quantity of toxic extract was dried under a stream of dry nitrogen and placed in a vacuum dessicator overnight. The dried extracts were dissolved in phosphate buffered saline containing 5% Tween 80 and administered intraperitoneally. Control animals received an equal volume of the vehicle. Lethality was assessed at kQ h. 

Operations with high cross-contamination potential (e.g., mixtures of test or control articles with animal diets) are often conducted in small, dedicated, individual cubicles equipped with special and separate air-handling systems or are conducted under a fume hood. Special mixing equipment (e.g., enclosed twin-shell blenders) can be used to reduce the chance of cross-contamination. 

Its composition varies with the animal species and particularly the animal diet. As a result, its color may vary from dark amber to pale, while its pH can vary from 4 to 9. Upon standing, urine gradually throws out CO2 and becomes more alkaline, favoring the precipitation of the dissolved phosphates and organic salts. It is therefore essential that urine samples be buffered to a certain pH prior to analysis, and that the analytical method be validated for a variety of urine samples obtained at different time points from different animals and species. 

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