Bacterial infection, immune response

The main parameters commonly used for monitoring the course of an experimental skin and soft tissue infection are the death or survival of the animal, the development and progression of the local skin lesion, and the removal of organs for determination of bacterial loads, immune response analysis, or histological evaluation. Survival curves can be constructed by monitoring the time of death of individual mice after bacterial inoculation (see Note 8). 

Testes from the males examined 43 days after the 8-D treatment appeared normal. However, the epididymis was involved in an inflammatory process with sperm granulomas formation. The granulomatous epididymal lesion resembled the lesion seen in auto-immune reaction following bacterial infections or tissue response to foreign bodies (16, 17,... 

Multiple factors play a role in the development of AOM. Viral infection of the nasopharynx impairs eustachian tube function and causes mucosal inflammation, impairing mucociliary clearance and promoting bacterial proliferation and infection. Children are predisposed to AOM because their eustachian tubes are shorter, more flaccid, and more horizontal than adults, which make them less functional for drainage and protection of the middle ear from bacterial entry. Clinical signs and symptoms of AOM are the result of host immune response and damage to cells caused by inflammatory mediators such as tumor necrosis factor and interleukins that are released from bacteria.4... 

About 10% of infected patients develop reactivation TB, with half occurring in the first 2 years after infection.2 6 12 Upper lobe pulmonary disease is the most common (85% of cases).2 Caseating granulomas result from the vigorous immune response, and liquefaction leads to local spread. Eventually, a pulmonary cavity results, and this provides a portal to the outside that allows for person-to-person spread. Bacterial counts in the cavities can be as high 1011 per liter of cavitary fluid (108 per milliliter).2,15 Prior to the chemotherapy era, pulmonary TB usually was associated with hypoxia, respiratory acidosis, and eventually death. 

Vaccination to induce an adaptive immune response is expected for a broad range of infectious diseases and cancers. Traditional vaccines are mainly composed of live attenuated viruses, whole inactivated pathogens, or inactivated bacterial toxins. In general, these approaches have been successful for developing vaccines that can induce an immune response based on antigen-specific antibody and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses, which kill host cells infected with intracellular organisms (Fig. 1) [1,2], One of the most important current issues in vaccinology is the need for new adjuvants (immunostimulants) and delivery systems. Many of the vaccines currently in development are based on purified subunits, recombinant... 

In addition to suppressive effects on conventional B cells, constitutive activation of the AhR causes the loss of peritoneal B-l cells.65 B-l cells, also called CD5+B cells, represent a small subset of B lymphocytes that plays an important role in innate immune responses to viral and bacterial infections. Consequently, the observation that constitutive AhR activation results in depletion of this specialized lineage suggests that TCDD may affect innate immunity to pathogens via as yet uncharacterized affects on B-l cells. 

Several opiate receptors have been identified on cells of the nervous systems of animals and humans, with mu (p), kappa (k), and gamma (y) subtypes being predominant. These classical opiate receptors are G- protein coupled 7-transmembrane molecules.27 Opiates predominantly affect immune responses directly by ligation of p, k, and y opiate receptors, as well as non-classical opiate-like receptors, on immune cells and indirectly by binding to receptors on CNS cells. Studies conducted in vitro with opiate-treated immune cells demonstrated receptor-mediated reduced phagocytosis, chemotaxis and cytokine and chemokine production. These effects are linked to modulation of host resistance to bacterial, protozoan, viral and fungal infections using animal models, cell lines and primary cells. 

Antimicrobial peptides have also been postulated to play a central role in the plant innate immune response to microbial infection and include the thionins, the defensins, and the cyclotides. It has been demonstrated that physiological concentrations of the thionins are active against bacteria and fungi in vitro and the heterologous expression of thionins in a transgenic plant model confer protection against bacterial challenge. ... 

Immunotoxicity. No studies were located assessing the potential effect on the immime system during 3,3 -dichlorobenzidine exposure. Studies that examine antibody levels and responses to bacterial infections after exposure to 3,3 -dichlorobenzidine would provide valuable information on the immune system. Also, evaluation of morbidity among individuals exposed to 3,3 -dichlorobenzidine in the workplace may provide important indirect evidence regarding their immime status. 

When bacteria overcome the cutaneous or mucosal barriers and penetrate body tissues, a bacterial infection is present Frequently the body succeeds in removing the invaders, without outward signs of disease, by mounting an immune response. If bacteria multiply faster than the body s defenses can destroy them, infectious disease develops with inflammatory signs, e.g., purulent wound infection or urinary tract infectioa Appropriate treatment employs substances that injure bacteria and thereby prevent their further multiplication, without harming cells of the host organism (1). 

Reactive arthritis (ReA) develops 1-3 weeks after a bacterial infection in the intestinal tract (diarrhea) and/or urethra (urethritis) or elsewhere due to immune responses. HLA-B27 positive individuals may develop ReA. ReA is an autoimmune disease and consists of sterile axial and/or peripheral articular inflammation, enthesitis and extra-articular manifestations. 

The main invasive pathogens are bacteria and viruses and recombinant live carriers using bacterial and viruses have been described. Viral carriers rely on the established and efficient methods for invading and infecting eukaryotic cells and their in vivo replicative process improves the induction of type I and type II immune responses. 

De Zoysa, M., Whang, I., Lee, Y., Lee, S., Lee, J. S., and Lee, J. (2010). Defensin from disk abalone Haliotis discus discus Molecular cloning, sequence characterization and immune response against bacterial infection. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 28, 261-266. 

Several other diseases exist which can destroy the myelin sheath. Many are a result of viral infections or the body s immune response to a bacterial infection. Guillain-Barre syndrome causes numbness and paralysis starting at the extremities radiating into the trunk of the body where it can cause complete respiratory collapse. Guillain-Barre has occurred in senior citizens who have been given flu vaccinations. The virus used in the vaccination may be attenuated (diminished in virility but not "killed") and still be capable of causing an infection. 

The immune response consists of two complementary systems, the humoral and cellular immune systems. The humoral immune system (Latin humor, fluid ) is directed at bacterial infections and extracellular viruses (those found in the body fluids), but can also respond to individual proteins introduced into the organism. The cellular immune system destroys host cells infected by viruses and also destroys some parasites and foreign tissues. 

Lipopolysaccharides are the dominant surface feature of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella ty-phimurium. These molecules are prime targets of the antibodies produced by the vertebrate immune system in response to bacterial infection and are therefore important determinants of the serotype of bacterial strains (serotypes are strains that are distinguished on the basis of antigenic properties). The lipopolysaccharides of S. typhimurium contain six fatty acids bound to two... 

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