Immune cells

Advances in immunology during the last part of the twentieth century have continued at a rapid rate and cytokines and immune cells having specific markers continue to be defined. A number of natural and synthetic immunotherapeutic agents have been discovered that can modulate components of the normal or aberrant immune system, through stimulation or suppression. However, most of these substances also have inherent adverse side effects. 

Among vertebrate species, the neuro-endocrine-immime system is responsible for many complex, inter-related physiological processes including neuronal, homeostatic, reproductive and immune functions. There are four main types of hormone polypeptides, eicosanoids, steroids and thyroid hormones. Reflecting the inter-dependency of the neiiro-endocrine and immune systems, hormones, neuropeptides and other neiirotransmitters are known to be produced by some immune cells and play a role in the regulation of the immune system, while endocrine and nervous tissues express receptors for many substances produced by the immune system. The major focus of interest in endocrine disruption has... 

A cascade of proteins of the immune response that can be triggered by antigen-antibody complexes and by the innate immune system (e.g. exposure to microbial polysaccharides) to raise the immune response. Complement proteins can detect and bind to foreign material or immune complexes and label them for phagocytosis. They can also cause inflammation by directly degranulating mast cells and releasing chemokines to recruit other immune cells into the affected area. 

Inhibition of inflammatory cytokines (Fig. 2) Humanized monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies (Infliximab (Remicade ), Adalimumab (Humira )) bind with high selectivity to human TNF-a and neutralize its activity. Thereby, infliximab decreases the effects of enhanced TNF levels during inflammatory disease such as production of proteases, chemokines, adhesion molecules, cyclooxygenase products (prostaglandins), and proinflammatory molecules such as interleukin-1 and -6. The antibodies may also recognize membrane-bound TNF-a on lymphocytes and other immune cells. These cells may subsequently become apoptotic or are eliminated via Fc-receptor-mediated phagocytosis. 

Defensins are a group of antimicrobial and cytotoxic peptides made by immune cells. There are seven defensins in humans, six alpha-defensins and one beta-defensin, which are involved in the innate immune defense at the surface of epithelia from the respiratory tract, the intestinal tract or the urinary tract. 

MC3R is expressed both within the periphery and central nervous system (CNS) with detection in immune cells, gut, placenta but no detection in the adrenal gland or melanocytes. Unlike other MCR, most melanocortins (ACTHi 39, a-, (3- and y-MSH) display equipotent binding and full biological activity with truncated peptides, ACTH o and ACTH o MC3R... 

NF-kB is also crucial for the proper functioning of the adaptive immune system not only by acting on the immune cells themselves but also by participating in the development and organization of the secondary lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, spleen, and Peyer s patches), in which both B and T lymphocytes undergo maturation and activation. NF-kB proteins have an important role in lymphocyte development and... 

Highest concentrations of MOPs are found in the thalamus, caudate, neocortex in the brain, but the receptors are also present in gastrointestinal tract, immune cells, and other peripheral tissues. 

High concentrations of KOP have been found in the cerebral cortex and hypothalamus KOP is also present in the gastrointestinal tract, in immune cells as well as in other peripheral tissues. KOPs have been implicated in the regulation of nociception, diuresis, feeding, neuroendocrine and immune system functions [2]. 

According to the NC-IUPHAR Subcommittee on Opioid Receptois it was proposed to term ORL-1 recqrtor as NOP receptor [1]. The human NOP receptor gene encodes a protein of370 amino acids. Splice valiants have been found in the human and mouse NOP recqrtor with no known functional significance. NOP receptors are widely distributed throughout the brain and in the spinal cord. They are also present in immune cells. A functional role for N/OFQ has been proposed in nociception, locomotoric activity, reward, stress, and immunomodulation. 

P2Y P2Y, Epithelial and endothelial cells, platelets, immune cells, osteoclasts 2-MeSADP = ADPpS > 2-MeSATP = ADP > ATP, MRS2365 MRS2179, MRS2500, MRS2279, PIT Gq/Gn PLC-p activation... 

P2Y2 Immune cells, epithelial and endothelial cells, kidney tubules, osteoblasts UTP= ATP, UTPyS, INS 37217, INS 365 Suramin > RB2, AR-C126313 Gq/Gn and possibly Gj PLC-p activation... 

Immune cells Diminishing IFN-y secretion from lymphocytes... 

Echinacea, a frequently used herb, is taken to stimulate the immune astern function by increasing the number and activity of immune cells and to stimulate phagocytosis (ingestion and destruction of bacteria and other harmful substanceIt appears to shorten the duration of colds and influenza. 

IFNs are natural glycoproteins produced by the cells of most vertebrates in response to the challenge by foreign agents, such as infectious organisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites), and by tumor cells. IFNs can be produced by cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems and by non-immune cells such as fibroblasts and epithelial cells. 

There is only one known type II IFN, IFN-y, discovered in 1965 (Wheelock and Sibley 1965). IFN-y is exclusively produced by immune cells, such as activated thymus-derived T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, after stimulation by foreign antigens or mitogens in the early stages of the innate immune response (Boehm etal. 1997). The human IFN-y gene maps to chromosome 12. IFN-y is a noncovalent... 

Producing cells Hematopoietic cells, mainly leukocytes Fibroblasts and some epithelial cell types Hematopoietic cells, mainly leukocytes Immune cells, mainly T cells and NK cells Hematopoietic cells, mainly monocytes Hematopoietic cells, mainly monocytes... 

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