Bacterial counts

Establish Specifications for Each CCP. It is necessary to include tolerances at each CCP. Examples of specifications or limits include product pH range, the maximum allowable level of bacterial counts, and the time and temperature range for cooking. 

Sliming is often more severe on inlet tube sheets than on outlets. Bacterial counts are usually quite high, exceeding tens of millions in most slime layers (Table 6.5). Sulfate-reducer counts are also usually high. In waters taken from such systems, bacteria counts are often several orders of magnitude lower. 

The richer a plant part is in nutrients and the slower the drying process, the higher the bacterial count of the resulting drug root drugs, which of course are to begin with more heavily contaminated, always have a higher bacterial count than do flowers, for example, which are a less suitable as a nutrient medium. 

Bakterien wachstum, n. bacterial growth, zahlung, /. bacterial count, -zucbtung, /. bacterial culture. 

The above sterilized medium was inoculated with 11 liters of seed inoculum having a bacterial count of approximately 20 billion per cc. The tank was fermented at 37°C without pH adjustment, aeration, or other modification for 14 hours at the end of which time 320 cc of 50% dextrose was added. After this the pH was adjusted to 7.0 at 15 minute intervals with 5.0 N sodium hydroxide. The volume of sodium hydroxide required for neutralization was noted and 115% of this volume of 50% dextrose solution added after each pH adjustment. At the end of about 8 hours the bacterial count had ceased to increase and the fermentation was terminated. At this time the fermentation medium contained approximately 1,000 units of streptokinase per cc. 

Although not very precise, the bacterial count can be estimated by using the information provided in Table 4-172. 

One of the uses of mains water is for washing chemicals used in pharmaceutical preparations to remove impurities or imwanted by-products of a reaction, and although the bacterial count of the water may be low, the volume used is large and the material being washed may be exposed to a considerable number of bacteria. 

Distilled water is often used in the formulahon of oral and topical pharmaceutical preparations and a low bacterial count is desirable. It is also used after distillation with a specially designed still, often made of glass, for the manufacture of parenteral preparations and a post-distillation heat sterilization stage is commonly included in the process. Water for such preparahons is often stored at 80°C in order to prevent bacterial growth and the production of pyrogenic substances which accompany such growth. 

About 10% of infected patients develop reactivation TB, with half occurring in the first 2 years after infection.2 6 12 Upper lobe pulmonary disease is the most common (85% of cases).2 Caseating granulomas result from the vigorous immune response, and liquefaction leads to local spread. Eventually, a pulmonary cavity results, and this provides a portal to the outside that allows for person-to-person spread. Bacterial counts in the cavities can be as high 1011 per liter of cavitary fluid (108 per milliliter).2,15 Prior to the chemotherapy era, pulmonary TB usually was associated with hypoxia, respiratory acidosis, and eventually death. 

The automated EXAMS model consists of a set of FORTRAN programs which calculates the fate, exposure and dissipation of the chemical from input environmental data such as 1) Global parameters (rainfall, irradiance, latitude), 2) Biological parameters (biomass, bacterial counts, chlorophyll), 3) Depths and in-lows, 4) Sediment characteristics, 5) Wind, 6) Evaporation, 7) Aeration, 8) Advective and turbulent interconnections, 9) Water flow, 10) Sediment flow, 11) pH and pOH, and 12) Temperature. Also characteristics of the chemical are taken into account such as hydrolysis photolysis, oxidation, biolysis, and volatility. 

Table 19.3 Total aerobic bacterial count, coliform bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus, Salmonella and E. coll, for lettuce growing in late spring and late summer 2004 (Rattler et al., 2005)...

Fig-1. The density of bacteria along the gastrointestinal tract of man is shown schematically based on data from references 1-5 in the text. Density is given by logio CFU/ml of luminal contents in the fasting state. TBC = Total bacterial count. 

There is a close correlation between gastric acidity and the density of bacteria in the stomach. At fasting gastric pH <3, gastric aspirate will be sterile or contain less than 103—104 CFU/ml [1,14,61-63]. With an elevation of gastric pH, bacterial counts increase to a plateau of about 106-108 CFU/ml at pH 6-7.5 [1, 62-64] (see fig. 3). This was recently reviewed in further detail by Yeomans et al. [65],... 

Fig. 5. Relationship between fasting intestinal motility [x-axis migrating motor complex (MMC) index] and bacterial colonization of small bowel in 41 patients with late radiation enteropathy (LRE) is shown by two plots. Relationship to Gram-negative bacilli (a) and to total bacterial count (b) in the duodenum is shown. Note that no significant Gram-negative colonization was found in patients with normal MMC (index = 3). The vertical dotted lines show the normal limit for MMC index. Increased bacterial counts due to URT flora were found in some patients with normal MMC (b). Tied observations are indicated as follows n = 1 n = 2 1 n = 3 1 n = 4 + n = 6 For n > 6...

Summary of Failure of the Gastric Acid Barrier Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth When the gastric acid barrier fails the bacterial counts in the most proximal part of small bowel increase. Stan-... 

When intestinal peristalsis and clearance are intact, the bacteria are rapidly transported aborally, and in the mid jejunum bacterial counts are in general low (normal) despite dense gastric colonization. Considerable evidence indicates that bacteria recovered from small bowel under such conditions are transient rather than resident. 

Repeated oral administration of an antibiotic that reaches very high concentrations within the GI lumen could have profound effects on intestinal flora [ 12,13]. As expected, rifaximin markedly reduced fecal bacterial counts during oral intake but the effect was short-lasting since the bacterial population recovered within 1-2 weeks from the end of treatment (table 4) [82], Most importantly, fungal colonization occurred very rarely. Indeed, Candida albicans, which has been implicated in the pathogenesis of antibiotic-associated diarrhea [82, 83], was isolated from the fecal samples of only 2 out of 10 patients given 1,200 mg of rifaximin daily [81] and in none of the volunteers taking 800 mg daily [82],... 

Table 9. Effect of short-term preoperative treatment with rifaximin or placebo on fecal bacterial counts in 118 patients submitted to colonic open surgery (from Gruttadauria et al. [148])... 

Minimal effects on intestinal flora were seen with rifaximin administration [9, 35]. In an early study, performed on healthy volunteers who received a short-term (5 days) rifaximin treatment, the observed changes in bowel flora returned to baseline levels within 1-2 weeks [9]. In a recent investigation fecal samples of patients with ulcerative colitis given three 10 day courses of the antibiotic were cultured and the different microbial species quantitated. Despite the high dose (i.e. 1800 mg daily) of rifaximin used there was only a minor change in bacterial counts which reverted back to pre-treatment values during the washout period [35]. It appears therefore that administration of this antibiotic does not disrupt intestinal microbial ecology. 

In general, these high-risk antibiotics cause less suppression of aerobic bacteria. Decreases in aerobes appear to have less effect on colonization resistance (table 3). Interestingly, colonic lavage without antibiotics decreases colonic bacterial counts by log 2 [40]. 

Table 2. Bacterial counts in fecal samples of patients with active chronic pouchitis before and after combined antibiotic treatment (from Gionchetti et al. [50])...

Bacterial species Bacterial count (log 10 CFU/g fecal dry weight) ... 

Wounds should be thoroughly irrigated with a sterile saline solution. Proper irrigation will reduce the bacterial count in the wound. 

Streptomyces Streptomyces microorganisms are actually actinomycetes. They are Gram-positive, chemoheterotrophic microorganisms that can comprise 5 - 20 % of the bacterial count in solid phases. These microorganisms produce antibiotics, including streptomycin. 

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