Topical application

Topical application is the most commonly employed method of exposure for insects. The insecticide is first dissolved in a relatively nontoxic and volatile solvent, such as acetone, and then a known volume of the test solution is applied to the body surface using a microsyringe accurate to 1 pL. Although topical application is one of the most accurate ways of treating the insect, it is tedious, requiring too much time for some situations. Furthermore, some species, due to size or behavior, cannot be treated successfully in this way. 

Studies of the noxious properties of capsaicin and other irritants have been conducted by instilling solutions of these into the eyes of rats and guinea pigs. As a measure of nociceptive intensity the number of eyewiping responses animals made with the foreleg was quantitated over 

Attempts to frame the above results into a unifying scheme which would explain the behavioral effects of capsaicin is made difficult for several reasons. First, apart from investigations of thermal stimuli in the physiological range, no detailed quantitation has been conducted on the influence of capsaicin on non-nociceptive sensory stimuli. Second, it is already apparent that capsaicin when given to neonatal animals has distinctly different effects on primary afferent neurons than when given to the adult. Other routes of administration may be accommodated by one of these categories or may yield still other deficits characteristic of the treatment. The variety of behavioral results obtained need to be correlated with the neurochemical and neuroanatomical profiles that each route of capsaicin administration creates. Finally, there is the question of dose. As 

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Topical Application. Azelastine (11) and levocabastine (13) have been developed for topical appHcation (45). The topical antihistamines address the preference of some patients for a local treatment and allow adrninistration of dmg directly to the site requited. The advantage of this therapeutic approach is likely to be in the speed of onset of symptom rehef. In contrast to earlier reports of sensitization with older antihistamines locally apphed to the skin (46), sensitization has not been reported with local appHcation to the nose or eyes. 

Condensation of 0,0-diethyl chlorothiophosphate with 2-isopropyl-6-methylpyrimidin-4(3//)-one gives the powerful insecticide dimpylate (1045) (57HCA1562). It is used in veterinary medicine (58MI21301), in particular for topical application, with or without added DDT, in cases of blowfly strike in sheep. 

Topical applications are housings for TV sets, telephones, fascia panels, hair brush handles, luggage, helmets and linings for refrigerators. 

ASM 981 is an ascomycin derivative that has been approved for topic application only. 

Tea tree oil comes from an evergreen tree native to Australia. The herb has been used as a nonirritating, antimicrobial for cuts stings wounds burns and acne. It can be found in shampoos soaps and lotions. Tea tree oil should not be ingested orally but is effective when used topically for minor cuts and stings. Tea tree oil is used as an antifungal to relieve and control the symptoms of tinea pedis Topical application is most effective when used in a cream with at least 10% tea tree oil. Several commercially prepared ointments are available. The cream is applied to affected areas twice daily for several weeks... 

The various methods of administering a local anesthetic include topical application, local infiltration, or regional anesfliesia... 

Decongestants are used to treat the congestion associated with rhinitis, hay fever, allergic rhinitis, sinusitis, and the common cold. In addition, they are used in adjunctive therapy of middle ear infections to decrease congestion around the eustachian tube Nasal inhalers may relieve ear block and pressure pain during air travel. Many can be administered orally as well as topically, but topical application is more effective than the oral route. 

In a broad evaluation also the sulfosuccinate disodium laureth sulfosuccinate (DLSS) was a part of a variety of surfactants tested for their dermatological mildness, and some different test methods were applied [16]. Products were compared applying in vitro methods (Zein test, hemolysis) and in vivo methods (Duhring-Chamber test, skin mildness by intracutaneous test on mice and topical application on hairless mice, mucous membrane irritation according to the Draize procedure on rabbit eyes). In the Duhring-Chamber test the DLSS elicited no reactions in the animal tests it ranged in the least irritant third of the 15 products tested. 

PseudofoUiculitis barbae is a foreign-body inflammatory reaction surrounding ingrown facial hair, which results from shaving. Topical application of glycolic acid lotion is an effective therapy and allows the patient to resume a daily shaving regimen [15]. 

Barbaud A, Modiano P, Cocciale M, et al (1996) The topical application of resorcinol can provoke a systemic allergic reaction. Br J Dermatol 135 1014-1015... 

Wexler MR, Halon DA, Teitelbaum A, et al (1984) The prevention of cardiac arrhythmias produced in an animal model by topical application of a phenol preparation in common use for face peeling. Plast Recontsr Surg 73 595-598... 

Pyrethroids show very marked selective toxicity (Table 12.2). They are highly toxic to terrestrial and aquatic arthropods and to fish, but only moderately toxic to rodents, and less toxic still to birds. The selectivity ratio between bees and rodents is 10,000- to 100,000-fold with topical application of the insecticides. They therefore appear to be environmentally safe so far as terrestrial vertebrates are concerned. There are, inevitably, concerns about their possible side effects in aquatic systems, especially on invertebrates. 

In addition, the ductal mucosa in the caudal region was hyperplastic, being lined by 4-5 rows of cells. Epidermal hyperplasia following topical application of 8-D on rabbit s ear is known (19). 

Mezei, M. (1988). Liposomes in the topical application of drugs a review. In Liposomes as Drug Carriers Recent Trends and Progress (G. Gregoriadis, ed.), John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, pp. 663-677. 

Other Agents. Allergic reactions to chlorhexidine have been observed after insertion of central catheters impregnated with this antiseptic, or after intraurethral use or topical application [26]. Only rare cases of anaphylaxis following topical use of povidone-iodine have been reported. 

True IgE-mediated anaphylactic reactions to LAs are extremely rare [11-13]. Only single cases have been reported in the literature with positive prick tests [ 14,15]. A case of a positive open patch test in a patient suffering from contact urticaria after topical application of lidocaine, pilocaine mixture (Emla cream) might represent a true IgE-mediated allergy [16]. The maj ority of immediate-type reactions are non-immune in nature. 

Neomycin is poorly absorbed fiom the alimentary tract when given orally, and is usually used in the form of lotions and ointments for topical application against skin and eye infections. Fraittycetin consists of neomycin B with a small amount of neomycin C, and is usually employed locally. 

Figure 2.14 Relation between the EEG recorded from an epileptic focus on the surface of the cerebral cortex (EEG) and the activity of a single cortical neuron recorded extracellularly (e.c.) and intracellularly (i.c.) during an experimental epilepsy induced by topical application of penicillin. Note that the large EEG excursions correspond to the large (synchronised) depolarisations of the neuron, not to action potential discharges. (Adapted from Brain Res. 52 Ayala, GF et al. Genesis of Epileptic Interictal Spikes. New Knowledge of Cortical Feedback systems suggests a Neurophysiological Explanation of Brief Paroxysms, 1-17 (1973) with permission from Elsevier Science)...

Stanley PD (2002) Principles and topical applications of F NMR spectrometry. Handbook Environ Chem 3N 1-56. 

We have already stressed the potential importance of lipid-rich membranes in the skin as potential targets for ROS-induced damage and ageing of human skin is morphologically identical to changes found by peroxidative processes (Serri et al., 1977). The involvement of AA metabolites in skin disease, and in particular psoriasis, has been the subject of much recent interest. Studies have included topical and intradermal administrations of AA metabolites, and assay of such products in clinical specimens. Results show that concentration of AA, 12-hydroxy-eicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE), PG and leu-kotrienes are increased in psoriatic lesions (Hammarstrom etal., 1975 Camp etal., 1983 Brain etal., 1984 Duell et al., 1988) and also that full-thickness epidermis from normal and diseased skin has the enzymatic capacity to convert AA to some of the same metabolites (Hammarstrom etal., 1975, 1979 Camp etal., 1983 Brain etal., 1984 Ziboh et al., 1984 DueU et al., 1988). The biological effect of both 12-HETE and leukotrienes was confirmed by both topical application and intradermal injection, which caused epidermal inflammation and... 

Mutinelli, F., Baggio, A., Capolongo, F., Piro, R., Prandin, L., and Biasion, L. (1997). A scientific note on oxalic acid by topical application for the control of varroosis. Apidologie 28,461-462. 

Lithium has been found to prevent ASR expansion [37]. It is used either to mitigate further distress in ASR-affected structures by topical application of lithium solutions or as a means of using ASR aggregates in new structures when other methods of ASR mitigation are not feasible. As a critical amount of lithium is needed in the pore solution of cement paste to arrest the expansion [38], a method to spatially resolve and quantify the lithium is desirable. 

Methods for reducing peak absorption of americium after inhalation or oral exposure have not been described. Topical applications of saline containing DTP A, tartaric acid, or citric acid (e.g., Schubert s solution) have been used to remove americium from the skin and wounds after accidental dermal exposures (Breitenstein 1983). These agents form stable, water soluble complexes with americium. 

Based on topical application of some chlorinated compounds dissolved in 95% ethyl alcohol. Values expressed as micrograms of toxicant per gram of fly weight )... 

Elder leaves are primarily used for topical applications as an emollient and vulnerary. They were traditionally mixed with tallow and made into an ointment for hemorrhoids, burns, bruises, sprains, chilblains, wounds, hives, eczema, tumors and gout. Elder leaf salve is reported to be as effective as cortisone creams. Elder is most beneficial in moving the stagnation associated with black-and-blue marks. Soaking cuts in a tea of elder leaves before applying the salve is another common first aid application. 

Anti-inflammatory. Elder flowers help soothe an inflamed respiratory tract irritated by hay fever and sinusitis. Elder has even been used to calm the agony of gout. Cool, strained elder flower tea makes an excellent application to inflamed eyes. Elderberries taken internally as a tea, tincture or syrup help to soothe irritated bowels or colitis. Topical applications are also helpful for glandular swellings. Parts used flowers, berries. 

We tend to think of them being much the same, but the functioning of semisolid dermatological products stands in stark contrast with that of transdermal delivery systems. To begin with, most topical applications... 

Clinical trials of some of the more potent tertiary amines revealed these to exhibit marked psychotomimetic activity.11 Much subsequent work thus dealt with the quaternary salts which do not reach the central nervous system. Many of the uses of anticholinergic drugs involve "topical" application (e. g., interior of the stomach, intestine or bronchi) ... 

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