Cottonseed proteins

Protein-Based Substitutes. Several plant and animal-based proteins have been used in processed meat products to increase yields, reduce reformulation costs, enhance specific functional properties, and decrease fat content. Examples of these protein additives are wheat flour, wheat gluten, soy flour, soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, textured soy protein, cottonseed flour, oat flour, com germ meal, nonfat dry milk, caseinates, whey proteins, surimi, blood plasma, and egg proteins. Most of these protein ingredients can be included in cooked sausages with a maximum level allowed up to 3.5% of the formulation, except soy protein isolate and caseinates are restricted to 2% (44). 

Preparation of Other Antigenic Materials. Cotton plant tissues (stem, leaf, burr), cotton gin trash, baled cotton, clean cotton lint, both hand picked in the field and from plants grown in the greenhouse, cottonseed proteins, cottonseed hulls, house dust, and flax, soft hemp, sisal, and jute fibers, were extracted with deionized water. The purification process was, however, stopped to correspond to f-3 (see Figure 1). 

The CP content of cottonseed meal may vary from 360 to 410g/kg, depending on the contents of hulls and residual oil. AA content and digestibility of cottonseed meal are lower than in soybean meal. Although fairly high in protein, cottonseed meal is low in lysine and tryptophan. The fibre content is higher in cottonseed meal than in soybean meal, and its ME value is inversely related to the fibre content. Cottonseed meal is a poorer source of minerals than soybean meal. The content of carotene is low in cottonseed meal, but this meal compares favourably with soybean meal in water-soluble vitamin content, except biotin, pantothenic acid and pyridoxine. 

Food proteins are important in determining the characteristics of many food products. Frequently the protein used influences more than one characteristic of the food. The protein selected will vary as a function of the protein, the formulation of the food, and the processing of the product. The most common proteins used as food ingredients include egg proteins [83,84], soy proteins [85,86], milk proteins [87,88,89], wheat gluten [90], and fish proteins [91]. Other proteins have been used to a lesser degree and include rapeseed protein, sunflower protein, pea protein, cottonseed protein, peanut protein, and blood plasma. 

Other protein materials utilized in the production of formaldeh> de-modified resins and plastics include dried blood, yeast, leather waste, and ege-table proteins such as gluten, zein, ground-nut protein, cottonseed meal, and keratin from hoofs, horn, hah, and feathers. 

Soybean meal is the most frequently used source of supplemental protein in the United States (5). Cottonseed meal is another important protein supplement. Both meals are by-products from oil extraction of the seeds. Canola meal is derived from rapeseed low in emcic acid [112-86-7] and glucosinolates. Linseed (derived from flax seed), peanut, sunflower, safflower, sesame, coconut, and palm kernel meals are other sources of supplemental protein that are by-products of oil extraction (4). 

Seeds. Seeds are produced in pods, usually containing three almost spherical-to-oval seeds weighing 0.1—0.2 g. Commercial varieties have a yellow seed coat plus two cotyledons, plumule, and hypocotyl-radicle axis. The cotyledons contain primarily protein and Hpid bodies (see Fig. 1). Cottonseed. 

Cottonseed. When compared with FAO/WHO/UNU essential amino acid requirements (see Table 3), cottonseed proteins are low in lysine, threonine, and leucine for 2 to 5-year-old children, yet meet all requirements for adults. 

Pea.nuts, The proteins of peanuts are low in lysine, threonine, cystine plus methionine, and tryptophan when compared to the amino acid requirements for children but meet the requirements for adults (see Table 3). Peanut flour can be used to increase the nutritive value of cereals such as cornmeal but further improvement is noted by the addition of lysine (71). The trypsin inhibitor content of raw peanuts is about one-fifth that of raw soybeans, but this concentration is sufficient to cause hypertrophy (enlargement) of the pancreas in rats. The inhibitors of peanuts are largely inactivated by moist heat treatment (48). As for cottonseed, peanuts are prone to contamination by aflatoxin. FDA regulations limit aflatoxin levels of peanuts and meals to 100 ppb for breeding beef catde, breeding swine, or poultry 200 ppb for finishing swine 300 ppb for finishing beef catde 20 ppb for immature animals and dairy animals and 20 ppb for humans. 

Use of some oilseed proteins in foods is limited by flavor, color, and flatus effects. Raw soybeans, for example, taste grassy, beany, and bitter. Even after processing, residues of these flavors may limit the amounts of soybean proteins that can be added to a given food (87). The use of cottonseed and sunflower seed flours is restricted by the color imparted by gossypol and phenoHc acids, respectively. Flatus production by defatted soy flours has been attributed to raffinose and stachyose, which are removed by processing the flours into concentrates and isolates (88). 

Other Proteins. Groundnut, fish, and cottonseed proteins have been used to a limited degree in dairy substitutes. The properties of the materials are discussed in thehterature (5). 

Nitrogen sources include proteins, such as casein, zein, lactalbumin protein hydrolyzates such proteoses, peptones, peptides, and commercially available materials, such as N-Z Amine which is understood to be a casein hydrolyzate also corn steep liquor, soybean meal, gluten, cottonseed meal, fish meal, meat extracts, stick liquor, liver cake, yeast extracts and distillers solubles amino acids, urea, ammonium and nitrate salts. Such inorganic elements as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium and chlorides, sulfates, phosphates and combinations of these anions and cations in the form of mineral salts may be advantageously used in the fermentation. 

Seven diets were constructed from purified natural ingredients obtained from either C3 (beet sugar, rice starch, cottonseed oil, wood cellulose, Australian Cohuna brand casein, soy protein or wheat gluten for protein) or C4 foodwebs (cane sugar, corn starch, com oil, processed corn bran for fiber, Kenya casein for protein) supplemented with appropriate amounts of vitamins and minerals (Ambrose and Norr 1993 Table 3a). The amino acid compositions of wheat gluten and soy protein differ significantly from that of casein (Ambrose and Norr 1993). 

The Food Protein Research and Development Center at Texas A M University has developed a cookbook of glandless cottonseed kernel uses in a variety of appetizer, salad, main course, side dish, and dessert products (23). 

Defatted flours are especially attractive as protein sources, since 10-12% substitution of wheat flour with 50% protein flour will raise total protein content of typical wheat breads by approximately 50%, and 25% substitution will almost double the protein content of cookies. Preparation of protein-enriched breads has been reported in the literature using soy flours and protein concentrates (25), peanut flours and peanut protein concentrates C26, 27), glandless cottonseed flours, concentrates and isolates (28), sunflower seed flours and seed protein concentrates (27) and sesame flours and protein concentrates (26). 

Simmons, R. G. Golightly, N. H., "Cottonseed Cookery" Food Protein R D Center, Texas A M University, College Station, 1981. 

Studies incorporating cottonseed into many different foods have yielded acceptable products with improved protein quantity and quality. The presence of free gossypol and cyclopropenoid fatty acids (CPFA) potentially limits the use of cottonseed in human foods. 

The same shipment of raw, cooked and roasted glandless whole kernel cottonseed flours used in the FDA study was used to determine the protein efficiency ratio (PER) of each flour (8). The adjusted PER (Table II) of cooked (2.10) cottonseed was significantly higher than roasted (1.77) cottonseed. Protein retention efficiency (PRE) for roasted cottonseed (58.08) was lower than values for raw (60.54) and cooked (62.95) cottonseed. Relative protein values (RPV) indicated a utilization of 91, 91 and 96% of the protein in raw, roasted and cooked cottonseed, respectively. The multiplication of the (RPV) percentage utilization and the protein content of the cottonseed (Table I) results in the relative utilizable protein values (Table II). 

Cooked glandless cottonseed protein quality was superior to that of raw and roasted cottonseed. The roasting process adversely affected protein quality. Supplementation of roasted cottonseed with 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8% L-lysine indicated a peak PER response at 0.45%. The adverse effect of roasting on the protein quality of cottonseed was overcome by addition of L-lysine which made the protein... 

Table III. Average Adjusted Protein Efficiency Ratio for Raw, Cooked and Roasted Cottonseed Supplemented with Lysinea...

High-protein, low-cost Nigerian foods, chin-chin, puff-puff, akara (9), akamu, sugar cookies and yeast bread (10) were developed using raw full-fat cottonseed (Table I), defatted cottonseed (Table V), soybean, peanut or sesame flours as protein supplements. 

Cottonseed, peanut, sesame seed, and soybean flours, when used as supplements, add to the quality of the protein. The improvement of protein quality was due to the flours compensating for limiting amino acids. Supplementation using various flours improved total protein, amino acid content and some physical characteristics in akamu, yeast bread and sugar cookies. 

Cottonseed flakes and cot-n-nuts have been used in many foods. The Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences has published (11) nCooking with Cottonseed", a booklet which is available on request. Examples of foods with cottonseed flakes are orange cotton cake, cot-n-nut chewies, granola bars, sausage and cotton balls, bolla chips (a high protein snack food), cot-n-nut cups, sausage in a cottonseed roll, and cotton cheese crackers. 

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