Gluten wheat

DMA results indicated that the Tg of these WG samples started at around 60-75°C, and increasing the processing temperature also resulted in an increase in T . The severe shear deformation 

The processing effect on the lipid component in the WG materials were also examined by MAS NMR spectra (Fig. 5.4B) and the T2 data were measured via the resonances in MAS spectra. It seems that only the T2 values at 5.3 ppm (the -CH=CH- in lipid) [59] decreased significantly after ECAP processing, while the T2 change of the -CH2- segments (at 1.3 ppm) of lipid was minimal [50], and that the ECAP process only enhanced the interactions between the olefinic segments of lipid. The effect of motional restriction was weak for the lipid groups far away from such interaction sites. 

The results demonstrate that ECAP technique is an effective methodology to consolidate raw WS or WG powder into bulk plastic materials without using any additional plasticizers at relatively low temperatures. This is impossible to achieve by any other conventional polymer processing method. 

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Protein-Based Substitutes. Several plant and animal-based proteins have been used in processed meat products to increase yields, reduce reformulation costs, enhance specific functional properties, and decrease fat content. Examples of these protein additives are wheat flour, wheat gluten, soy flour, soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, textured soy protein, cottonseed flour, oat flour, com germ meal, nonfat dry milk, caseinates, whey proteins, surimi, blood plasma, and egg proteins. Most of these protein ingredients can be included in cooked sausages with a maximum level allowed up to 3.5% of the formulation, except soy protein isolate and caseinates are restricted to 2% (44). 

Another requirement for proper leavening is the presence of a protein matrix sufftciendy elastic to trap small carbon dioxide bubbles. Wheat gluten fulfills this requirement. Rye protein is less suitable and the proteins of other cereals, eg, rice, oats, or com, are practically useless. 

Fig. 15. En2ymatic hydrolysis of wheat gluten at 72.5°C and pH 7.5 by an alkaline protease from Bacillus licheniformis. The numbers on the curves are en2yme—substrate ratios (E/S) in activity units (AU)/kg of protein where S = 7.4% (N x 5.7).

Seven diets were constructed from purified natural ingredients obtained from either C3 (beet sugar, rice starch, cottonseed oil, wood cellulose, Australian Cohuna brand casein, soy protein or wheat gluten for protein) or C4 foodwebs (cane sugar, corn starch, com oil, processed corn bran for fiber, Kenya casein for protein) supplemented with appropriate amounts of vitamins and minerals (Ambrose and Norr 1993 Table 3a). The amino acid compositions of wheat gluten and soy protein differ significantly from that of casein (Ambrose and Norr 1993). 

Kayserilioglu, B. S., Bakir, U., Yilmaz, L. Akkas, N. (2003). Use of xylan, an agricultural by-product, in wheat gluten based biodegradable films mechanical, solubility and water vapor transfer rate properties. Bioresource Technology, Vol. 87, 3, (May 2003), pp. (239-246), ISSN 0960-8524... 

Purely thermal denaturation of proteins requires much longer times collagen in moist heat below 120 °C needs 30 min to denature (Meyer et ah, 2005), wheat glutens must be subjected to 200-215 °C of dry heat for 72 min (Friedman et ah, 1987), and as mentioned above, whey proteins require at least 50 °C and 30 min for texturization without the use of extrusion processing. 

Birzele B and Prange A (2003), Fusarium spp. and storage fungi in suboptimally stored wheat mycotoxins and influence on wheat gluten proteins. Mycotoxin Res., 19, 162-170. 

Gluten is used to refer to dried wheat gluten, all the proteins in a dough, and by chemists as a class of proteins. 

Proteins have been studied for a long time. Beccari published an account of his experiments to isolate gluten in 1747 In 1805 Einhof discovered that a fraction of wheat gluten was soluble, while in 1858 Denis showed that many proteins of both plant and animal origin were soluble in saline solutions. In 1859 Ritthausen started to prepare highly purified proteins, only to be criticised by Weyl for using alkali to extract the proteins. Weyl in his work used the Denis method of extraction with neutral salts. 

Dried Gluten. This material is sold as vital wheat gluten, it is produced by a scaled up version of the process for producing wet gluten for flour testing. A flour and water dough is made and then washed to remove the starch, the soluble proteins and the pentosan-based gum fraction. This latter fraction is an example of a non-starch carbohydrate. 

These products are made by adding protein to flour. While whey protein, soya protein, casein and yeast can be used the protein normally employed is pure vital wheat gluten. 

Rye and Climate. Rye will grow in conditions where wheat will not grow, so rye is available where wheat is not. Fortunately, rye is the only temperate cereal whose proteins can develop in a similar way to wheat gluten. 

The toughness is sometimes obtained by adding dried vital wheat gluten to the dough. This is one of the few products where this is done. 

THE MALABSORPTION SYNDROME, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS OF WHEAT GLUTEN... 

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