United States’ lithium production

Sa.Ia.rs and Lakes. Brines having high lithium concentration are found in salars of northern Chile, southwestern Bohvia, and northwestern Argentina. Brines of lower lithium concentration are found in salars in the western United States and the Tibetan Plateau. Brines pumped from beneath the surface of the Salar de Atacama (Chile) and Silver Peak (Clayton Valley, Nevada) are used for commercial production of lithium uti1i2ing solar evaporation (see Chemicals frombrines). The concentration of selected ions in brines from salars and lakes of potential commercial interest worldwide are shown in Table 1. 

Oil Fields. Oil field waters in the United States containing lithium have been identified in 10 states. The greatest concentrations are in waters from the Smackover formation of southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. Concentrations from this formation have been measured from 300—600 ppm in waters originating at a 2500—3300 m depth. Recovery of lithium from this resource would only be commercially feasible if a selective extraction technique could be developed. Lithium as a by-product of the recovery of petroleum (qv), bromine (qv), or other chemicals remains to be exploited (12). 

Metallurgy. Lithium forms alloys with numerous metals. Early uses of lithium alloys were made in Germany with the production of the lead alloy, BahnmetaH (0.04% Li), which was used for bearings for railroad cars, and the aluminum alloy, Scleron. In the United States, the aluminum alloy X-2020 (4.5% Cu, 1.1% Li, 0.5% Mn, 0.2% Cd, balance Al) was introduced in 1957 for stmctural components of naval aircraft. The lower density and stmctural strength enhancement of aluminum lithium alloys compared to normal aluminum alloys make it attractive for uses in airframes. A distinct lithium—aluminum phase (Al Li) forms in the alloy which bonds tightly to the host aluminum matrix to yield about a 10% increase in the modules of elasticity of the aluminum lithium alloys produced by the main aluminum producers. The density of the alloys is about 10% less than that of other stmctural aluminum alloys. 

Economic Aspects and Uses. In 1976, one-third of the lithium produced in the United States was extracted from brines of Seades Lake and Silver Peak (44,45). Since then, lithium production at Seades Lake has been discontinued and the lithium concentration at Silver Peak is decreasing. During the 1980s lithium extraction was started at the Salar de Atacama, Chile. This is the largest lithium production plant in the wodd using brine as its raw material. 

The United States produces and consumes about one-half of all the wodd production. Ore grades for the two principal nonbrine producers are becoming poor, and imports of brine-based lithium carbonate are increa sing. 

New technology and development of brine reserves are increasing each year in the United States and abroad. This affects the uses and price of brine chemicals. For example, development of the Salar de Atacama in Chile in the 1980s as the largest producer of brine lithium in the world has affected lithium production and prices worldwide. Lithium production from Seades Lake brine has been discontinued, and the Silver Peak operation in Nevada is in a slow production decline caused by weaker brine grades. 

In media selective for enterobacteria a surface-active agent is the main selector, whereas in staphylococcal medium sodium and lithium chlorides are the selectors staphylococci are tolerant of salt concentrations to around 7.5%. Mannitol salt, Baird-Parker (BP) and Vogel-Johnson (VJ) media are three examples of selective staphyloccocal media. Beside salt concentration the other principles are the use of a selective carbon source, mannitol or sodium pyruvate together with a buffer plus acid-base indicator for visualizing metabolic activity and, by inference, growth. BP medium also contains egg yolk the lecithin (phospholipid) in this is hydrolysed by staphylococcal (esterase) activity so that organisms are surrounded by a cleared zone in the otherwise opaque medium. The United States Pharmacopeia (1990) includes a test for staphylococci in pharmaceutical products, whereas the British Pharmacopoeia (1993) does not. 

Another issue with metals is availability. For example, cobalt is not produced in the United States, but it used extensively in a wide variety of alloys and in the production of one of the most common types of lithium batteries. The availability of cobalt is crucial to several segments of American industry. For example, batteries being developed for use in automobiles powered by alternate energy sources are currently envisioned to use a lithium ion battery that also contains cobalt. However, cobalt is not the only strategic metal, and there is concern about the availability of several metals that are vital to industries in the United States, China, and Japan. There will be competition and stockpiling of strategic metals as the reserves become less accessible. 

R. J. Brodd, Factors Affecting U. S. Production Decisions Why are There No Volume Lithium-Ion Battery Manufacturers in the United States ATP Working Paper Series, Working Paper 05-01, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, June 2005. 

Occasionally, discoveries cannot be patented. For example, if you discover something novel, such as lithium ameliorating bipolar disorder, there is a problem. Lithium is a chemical element, not a new chemical compound that can be patented per se. Since the industry could not make much money making lithium tablets, there was less incentive to establish a use patent. Nowadays, for some cases such as this, there is an orphan drug statute in the United States, which, since 1983, gives a company a seven-year exclusivity and enables it to develop a drug treatment and still help patients. But this is a very slow and very difficult process. It is much better to patent, and let the patent drop should no one develop it into a coiranercial product, than not to patent at all. 

In 2008, the world s largest consumer of lithium minerals and compounds was the United States. The major producer of lithium chemicals worldwide was Chile. Other countries involved in lithium production included Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Portugal, the United States, and Zimbabwe. Specific information on U.S. production was not released in order to preserve trade secrets. 

Mining of lithium minerals in the United States has recently developed rapidly. In 1919 a total of 6287 short tons were produced valued at 115,000. This was more than 10 times as much as was produced in any year preceding 1916. In 1920 the production totaled 11,696 short tons, valued at 173,000. Lepidolite from Pala, California, and spodumene from Keystone, South Dakota, were the chief ores. 

Over 450 million gal/year of petroleum oil are consumed in the United States for producing carbon black, an amor-phous form of carbon used principally in automotive tires. Broadly, the process consists of completely burning a fuel with air, injecting the atomized feedstock oil into the hot products of combustion, and recovering the carbon black by filtration. Reactor configuration and dimensions, residence time, and temperature are the critical factors. Oil feedstock is characterized by high degree of aromaticity and low ash components, particularly, sodium, potassium, lithium, iron, and copper. 

Formulations in the United States inclnde lithinm citrate syrnp, lithium immediate-release capsules and tablets, and two snstained-release products. 

The original product sold in the United States contains -30% lithium hypochlorite (35% available chlorine), 34% sodium chloride, 20% of potassium and sodium sulfates, 3% lithium chloride, 3% lithium chlorate, 2% lithium hydroxide, 1% lithium carbonate, and the balance is water. It is made from lithium sulfate that is extracted into water from a lithium aluminum silicate ore after it is treated with sulfuric acid. The resulting solution also contains sodium and potassium sulfates. It is neutralized with calcium carbonate to pH 6, treated to remove calcium and magnesium, filtered, and concentrated. Sodium hydroxide is added to convert lithium carbonate to lithium hydroxide. The solution is cooled to 0°C and the resulting sodium carbonate decahydrate crystals are removed by filtration. Slightly more sodium hydroxide than the molar equivalent of lithium hydroxide is then... 

The United States has only 35% of the world s zinc supply, which currently stands at 1.8 gigatons (1.8 x 10 tons). Zinc-air battery designers predict that 21 months worth of global zinc production could be used to manufacture 1 billion 10 kWh zinc air cells. By contrast, it would take 180 years worth of lithium material to make an equivalent amount of Li-ion batteries. Because most of the supply of lithium is located outside of the United States, Li-ion batteries would have to made outside of the United States. In addition, Li-ion batteries require charging... 

See colour insert.) (a) Lithium batteries are fabricated at a rate of several billion units per year since they are the chosen power sources for popular portable electronic devices, in particular, cellular phones and notebooks, (b) Most of the production is concentrated in Asia, with only a limited share in the United States and Europe. 

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