Other sweeteners

Traditionally, sugar (sucrose) or honey was used to sweeten food. In modern food processing, however, a number of other sweeteners are used, both bulk sweeteners that are used in amounts similar to the amounts of sugar they replace, and sugar substitutes that are many times sweeter than sugar and are used in very small amounts. 

High fructose syrups, prepared from starch, are commonly used instead of sugar. They are generally known as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) containing 30 percent fructose, 35 percent glucose, and 6 percent higher saccharides. They are only 74 percent as sweet as sucrose, therefore more has to be used to achieve the same sweetness. 

Fructose, prepared from hydrolysis of sucrose and isomerization of glucose is used in the manufacture of candy, soft drinks, and other processed foods. As fructose is 124 percent as sweet as sucrose, substitution of fructose for sucrose in foods permits a reduction in the calorie content of a food. 

Cyclamate was another major artificial sweetener, marketed from 1950 to 1969 in the United States. Mixtures of cyclamate and saccharin were especially well-accepted from taste consideration, and met stability and compatibility requirements. In late 1969, the U.S. FDA enforced a ban on the use of cyclamates in foods. Currently, the use of cyclamate is permitted in low-calorie foods in about 40 countries including Canada. Still, the U.S. FDA has not approved the use of cyclamates in foods. 

The increasing market demand for sweeteners resulted in the development of a number of chemicals. The major artificial sweeteners in the present market include acesulfame-K, alitame, aspartame, cyclamate, saccharin, and sucralose. Sweetness-intensity factors of several sweeteners compared with sucrose are given below  

Sugar alcohols, such as sorbitol, mannitol, and xyhtol are also used as sweeteners. They are derivatives of sugars that occur naturally in some fruits, and are manufactured by chemical reduction of the parent sugars. Sugar alcohols have a lower calorie yield than the sugars from which they are derived, and are commonly used in file preparation of jams and sweets used by diabetics. They are considered safe and can he used in foods in any required amount however, an intake greater than about 20 to 50 g day may cause gastrointestinal discomfort and have a laxative effect. 

Alitame, L-a-aspartyl-N-(2,2,4,4-tetramethyl-3-thietanyl)-D-alanine amide, has undergone a series of safety studies. While most of the studies did not show adverse effects and no indications for carcinogenicity were found, a dose-dependent increase in liver weights was found at levels above 100 mg/kg which was identified as the no-effect level. While JECFA has allocated an ADI of 0-1 mg/kg12 only a few countries, but neither the European Union nor the USA, have approved alitame. 

Aspartame, N-a-L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester, trade names NutraSweet , and Aspartil , is a dipeptide derivative. Like dipeptides aspartame is metabolised into the constituents, i.e. amino acids and methanol. Therefore studies into the metabolic behaviour and the fate of metabolites were carried out. Levels of blood aspartate and glutamate were measured after intake of high aspartame doses. Changes were transient and allegations of influences of high aspartame levels on brain function could never be verified. 

Special attention was paid to the potential influence on phenylketonurics (PKU), as aspartame contains phenylalanine. As persons suffering from PKU should avoid uncontrolled intake of phenylalanine-containing food constituents or food additives, most countries require a warning on aspartame-sweetened products unless the aspartame level brought about by constituents of these products will exceed the aspartame levels.1314 Evaluations of aspartame were carried out by JECFA, and an ADI of 0-40mg/kg of body weight was allocated.15 The SCF allocated the same level,10 whereas the FDA published a value of 50 mg/kg.16 

Cyclamates are the salts of the cyclohexylsulfamic acid. In 1969 cyclamates were blamed for being carcinogenic following a study in which an increase in bladder tumours was observed in a study on a cyclamate-saccharin blend. Following publication of the study the FDA and a number of other health authorities banned cyclamate from use in foods and beverages. On the basis of additional studies it has meanwhile been accepted that cyclamate is not carcinogenic. 

Whereas cyclamate as such is not metabolised in the human body, bacteria in the intestinal tract may degrade cyclamates to cyclohexylamine. The degradation rates vary widely and may occasionally exceed 50%, but are generally limited to a few percent of the total intake, should any metabolism occur at all. Changes within the same individual within fairly short periods have been observed. 

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Other Sweeteners. Two other sweeteners, sucralose and cyclamates, are approved for use outside of the United States. Sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose which is 500—600 times as sweet as sugar, has received limited approval in Canada, and petitions for its approval are pending in the United States and Europe (71). Cyclamate sweeteners, once available in the United States, but now baimed because they caused bladder cancer in animals, are stiU available in Canada and Europe. Table 7 gives several examples of nonnutritive sweeteners that have been developed. 

The sweet taste of sucrose is its most notable and important physical property and is regarded as the standard against which other sweeteners (qv) are rated. Sweetness is induenced by temperature, pH, sugar concentration, physical properties of the food system, and other factors (18—20). The sweetening powers of sucrose and other sweeteners are compared in Table 3. The sweetness threshold for dissolved sucrose is 0.2-0.5% and its sweetness intensity is highest at 32-38°C (19). 

The three single biggest producers were India, Brazil, and the United States, with 15.85, 12.6, and 7.24 x 10 kg, respectively. The average world market price for raw sucrose in 1994—1995 was 0.27/kg. A comparison of the price of sucrose and other sweeteners (qv) is given in Table 2. 

Sucrose occupies a unique position in the sweetener market (Table 3). The total market share of sucrose as a sweetener is 85%, compared to other sweeteners such as high fmctose com symp (HFCS) at 7%, alditols at 4%, and synthetic sweeteners (aspartame, acesulfame-K, saccharin, and cyclamate) at 4%. The world consumption of sugar has kept pace with the production. The rapid rise in the synthetic sweetener market during 1975—1995 appears to have reached a maximum. 

Also notable is the unique sweetness response profile of fmctose compared to other sweeteners (3,4). In comparison with dextrose and sucrose, the sweetness of fmctose is more quickly perceived on the tongue, reaches its iatensity peak earlier, and dissipates more rapidly. Thus, the sweetness of fmctose enhances many food flavor systems, eg, fmits, chocolate, and spices such as cinnamon, cloves, and salt. By virtue of its early perception and rapid diminution, fmctose does not have the flavor-maskiag property of other common sugars. 

Saccharin imparts a sweetness that is pleasant at the onset but is followed by a lingering, bitter aftertaste. Sensitivity to this bitterness varies from person to person. At high concentration, however, most people can detect the rather unpleasant aftertaste. Saccharin is synergistic with other sweeteners of different chemical classes. For example, saccharin—cyclamate, saccharin—aspartame, saccharin—sucralose, and saccharin—aUtame combinations all exert synergy to various degrees. The blends, as a rule, exhibit less aftertaste than each of the component sweeteners by themselves. 

HES containing 90% fmctose is used in low calorie or specialty foods because of its high sweetness and, therefore, reduced usage level and lower caloric value. Crystalline fmctose is essentially pure and used at a level that provides sweetness at a lower caloric level than other sweeteners (qv). Initial use was in diet and nutritious foods but appHcation has now been extended to many other food areas, such as powdered beverages, dry mix desserts, dairy products, and confections. 

Some sources consider aspartame a nutritive sweetener. It is sensitive to low pH and high temperatures and degrades over time. Aspartame can be used alone or in a blend with other sweeteners. 

Acesulfame potassium is used with other sweeteners such as aspartame because it has a long shelf life, and tastes sweet right away. It also has a synergistic effect with other sweeteners, so less of each is necessary to achieve the same sweetness. 

Lindley proposed an oblique, planar, stereogeometric arrangement between AH,B and y that is strikingly similar to Kier s tripartite glucophore, with distance and direction parameters as shown in Fig. 12. A similar y site for other sweeteners, such as the sweet dipeptides, has also been proposed, and it appears that the location of y in relation to AH,B is directional rather than positional. 

Basically, there are four major types of measures that are used in taste intensity measurements (a) threshold measures or estimates of the physical level at which the sensation of sweetness begins, (b) equal-sweetness matches between a sugar and other sweeteners, (c) category or rating scales, and (d) ratio scales. Each method has found its adherents and uses, and each possesses specific advantages and defects that indicate its use for one application, but contraindicate its use for another. These methods and their applications have been critically analyzed and reviewed, " " and it is, therefore, superfluous to deal with the topic here. 

Sweetening, flavouring and colouring agents. Mar of the sugars and other sweetening... 

If you are sensitive to honey or sweets, take elder-berry syrup with a meal to minimize any acidic effects. Some standard elderberry syrups contain honey or other sweeteners. 

Chen et al. (1997a) analysed sodium saccharin in soft drinks, orange juice and lemon tea after filtration by injection into an ion-exclusion column with detection at 202 nm. Recoveries of 98-104% were obtained. They reported that common organic acids like citric and malic and other sweeteners did not interfere. Qu et al. (1999) determined aspartame in fruit juices, after degassing and dilution in water, by IC-PAD. The decomposition products of aspartame, aspartic acid and phenylanaline were separated and other sweeteners did not interfere. The recoveries of added aspartame were 77-94%. Chen et al. (1997b) separated and determined four artificial sweeteners and citric acid. 

In addition to sucrose, a number of other sweetening agents have been utilized in foods and pharmaceuficals over the years, including dextrose, mannitol, sorbitol, aspartame, saccharin, and others. Some sweeteners, such as sucrose, aid in preserving the product. 

HFCS is in competition from other sweeteners such as sucrose and aspartame. 

Glucose-galactose syrups are about three times sweeter than lactose (70% as sweet as sucrose) and hence lactose-hydrolysed milk could be used in the production of ice-cream, yoghurt or other sweetened dairy products, permitting the use of less sucrose and reducing caloric content. However, such applications have not been commercially successful. 

Corn syrup solids (C5Hi2O5)n 2 (CAS. Reg. No. 68131-37-3) are defined by the FDA as dried glucose syrups (21 CFR 168.121) in which the reducing sugar content (DE) is 20.0 or higher. Corn syrup solids are presently under GRAS review along with other sweeteners and table syrups. 

Alvarez. J. and L.C. Polopolus Marketing Sugar and Other Sweeteners, Elsevier, New YoA. NY. 1091. 

Polyols are frequently used sugar substitutes and are particularly suited to situations where their different sensory and functional properties are attractive. In addition to sweetness, some of the polyols have other useful properties. For example, although it contains the same number of calories/gram as other sweeteners, sorbitol is absorbed more slowly from the digestive tract than is sucrose. It is, therefore, useful in making foods intended for special diets. When consumed in large quantities (1-2 oz 25,059 g)/dav, sorbitol can have a laxative effect, apparently because of its comparatively slow intestinal absorption. 

Acesulfame-K. This substance (potassium salt of the cyclic sulfano-mide), 6-methyl-l,2,3-oxatJiiazine-4(3H)-l,2.2-dioxide, shown below, was developed by Karl Clauss (IloechstCelanese Corporation, Somerville, New Jersey) in 1967. The compound is a white, odorless, crystalline substance with a sweetening power 200 times that of sucrose. A synergistic effect is produced when the substance is combined with a number of other sweeteners. The substance is calorie-free and not metabolized in the human body. Approval of the use of Acesulfame-K was given by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA) in the United States in 1983 and it is found in scores... 

Saccharin is about 300 times sweeter than sucrose. However, it has a bitter and metallic aftertaste that limits its use singly (Table 1). This aftertaste can be overcome by blending with other sweeteners. A mixture of saccharin with cyclamate (1 10) produces desirable sweetness. Saccharin has a slow onset of sweetness that gradually builds to a maximum intensity and then persists. Relative sweetness is affected by concentration, acidity, temperature, and type of food and flavor (3-5,8,9,58). 

Herrmann et al. (24) used ion-pair chromatography for the determination of cyclamate. The efficiency of LiChrosorb RP-18 and Hypersil MOS 3 with a mobile phase of 5 mM tetrabutylammonium p-toluenesulfonate, pH 3.5, mixed with 12% methanol for the separation of cyclamate from other sweeteners was investigated. With the first column, cyclamate separated from saccharin, but the second was the recommended column for the analysis of cyclamate, saccharin, aspartame, and dulcin in a single run. 

Reverse-phase and ion-exchange columns have been used for the separation of acesulfame-K. Veerabhadrarao et al. (27) and Hannisdal (62) separated acesulfame-K from other sweeteners and additives on reverse-phase Cl 8 columns using methanol acetic acid and methanol-.phosphate buffer mobile phase, respectively. However, most of the reverse-phase methods for the separation of acesulfame-K use acetonitrile phosphate buffer as the mobile phase (14,16,33,44,51,63). According to Prodolliet and Bruelhart (33), the use of acetonitrile in the mobile phase provides a better resolution for sweeteners than methanol. 

Aspartame is an intense sweetener first discovered in 1965 by J. Schlatter it is available under the brand names of Nutrasweet , Equal , and Canderel . Chemically, aspartame is N-L-a-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methyl ester (Fig. 1), withamolecularformulaofC14H 805N2 (MW = 294.30). It is a white, odorless, crystalline powder. It is slightly soluble in water and sparingly soluble in alcohol. The solubility increases as the pH is lowered (2,6,57). It has 100-200 times the sweetness of sucrose and exhibits a sweet, clean taste and a sweetness profile similar to that of sucrose, without bitter or metallic aftertaste (Table 1). However, it displays a slow onset of sweetness coupled with lingering sweet taste. It extends and intensifies tastes and enhances fruit flavors. Aspartame exhibits synergism, a superior taste profile, and improved stability when used with other sweeteners (1,4,14,55,75). 

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