Monkey vaccinated

Mett V, Lyons J, Musiychuk K, Chichester JA, Brasil T, Couch R, Sherwood R, Palmer GA, Streatfield SJ, Yusibov V. (2007) A plant-produced plague vaccine candidate confers protection to monkeys. Vaccine 25 3014-3017. 

Haensler, J., Verdelet, C., Sanchez, V., Girerd-Chambaz, Y., Bonnin, A., Trannoy, E., Krishnan, S. and Meulien, P. (1999) Intradermal DNA immunization by using jet-injectors in mice and monkeys. Vaccine, 17, 628-638. 

Jones, T.R., Obaldia III, N., Gramzinski, R.A., Charoenvit, Y., Kolodny, N., Kitov, S. et al. (1999) Synthetic oligodeoxynucleotides containing CpG motifs enhance immunogenicity of a peptide malaria vaccine in Aotus monkeys. Vaccine, 17, 3065-3071. 

Alexander, N.J., D.L. Fulgham, and E. Goldberg, E. 1992. Contraceptive vaccine development Secretory immune response in mice and monkeys. Vaccine Res 1 331. 

Verdier F, Burnett R, Michelet-Habchi C, Moretto P, Fievet-Groyne F, Sauzeat E. Aluminium assay and evaluation of the local reaction at several time points after intramuscular administration of aluminium containing vaccines in the Cynomolgus monkey. Vaccine. 2005 23 1359-1367. 

The Scientific American (www.sciam.com, 2001) reported a study at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease (United States) in which two mouse strains were genetically engineered to produce large quantities of a malarial parasite surface protein from Plasmodium falciparum. The malaria vaccine secreted in their milk was able to contain the disease in monkeys vaccinated with the same. This study has now been extrapolated to target livestock as the source animals. GTC is currently... 

Tseng J, Komisar JL, Trout RN, et al. Humoral immunity to aerosolized staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), a superantigen, in monkeys vaccinated with SEB toxoid-containing microspheres. Infect Immun. 1995 63(8) 2880-2885. 

Poliomyelitis (live or oral) (Sabin type) Cell cultures infected with attenuated poliovirus of each of the three serotypes 1 Clarification 2 Blending of virus of three serotypes in stabilizing medium Infectivity titration of each of three virus serotypes Test for attenuation by Inoculation of spinal cords of monkeys and comparison of lesions with those produced by a reference vaccine... 

Viral vaccines present problems of safety testing far more complex than those experienced with bacterial vaccines. With killed viral vaccines the potential hazards are those due to incomplete virus inactivation and the consequent presence of residual live virus in the preparation. The tests used to detect such live virus consist of the inoculation of susceptible tissue cultures and of susceptible animals. The cultures are examined for cytopathic effects and the animals for symptoms of disease and histological evidence of infection at autopsy. This test is of particular importance in inactivated poliomyelitis vaccine, the vaccine being injected intraspinally into monkeys. At autopsy, sections of brain and spinal cord are examined microscopically for the histological lesions indicative of proliferating poliovirus. 

With attenuated viral vaccines the potential hazards are those associated with reversion of the virus during production to a degree of virulence capable of causing disease in vaccinees. To a large extent this possibility is controlled by very careful selection of a stable seed but, especially with live attenuated poliomyelitis vaccine, it is usual to compare the neurovirulence of the vaccine with that of a vaccine known to be safe in field use. The technique involves the intraspinal inoculation of monkeys with a reference vaccine and with the test vaccine and a comparison ofthe neurological lesions and symptoms, if any, that are caused. If the vaccine causes abnormalities in excess of those caused by the reference it fails the test. 

Several attenuated strains have been developed for use in vaccine preparations. The most commonly used is the Jeryl Linn strain, which is propagated in chick embryo cell culture. This vaccine has been administered to well over 50 million people worldwide and, typically, results in seroconversion rates of over 97 per cent. The Sabin (oral poliomyelitis) vaccine consists of an aqueous suspension of poliomyelitis virus, usually grown in cultures of monkey kidney tissue. It contains approximately 1 million particles of poliomyelitis strains 1,2 or 3 or a combination of all three strains. 

Much of the preclinical data generated with regard to these vaccines entailed the use of one of two animal model systems simian immunodeficiency virus infection of macaque monkeys and HIV infection of chimpanzees. Most of the positive results observed in such systems have been in association with the chimp-HI V model. However, no such system can replace actual testing in humans. 

Early animal experiments have underlined the potential of vaccinia-based vector vaccines. Vaccinia virus-housing genes from HIV have clearly been found to elicit both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in monkeys. Similar responses in other animals have been reported when surface polypeptides from a variety of additional pathogens have been expressed in recombinant vaccinia systems (Table 10.16). Human clinical trials are now in progress. 

Animals are used for the manufacture of a number of biological products, e.g. polio vaccine (monkeys), snake antivenoms (horses and goats), rabies vaccine (rabbits, mice and... 

Biotechnology-derived vaccines that do not induce an immune response in lower species may have to be tested in a primate species, such as the cynomolgus monkey. A study design in the monkey has been suggested for this purpose (6), based on a proposed developmental toxicity study design for monoclonal antibodies (7). 

To some, it seems that there has been a paucity of high-quaiity vao-oines reiated to ohemicai and bioiogioai terrorist threats for U.S. residents. Untii very reoentiy, though, the Department of Defense (DOD) has been the oniy organization interested in vaooines for these types of threats. DOD has spent a iarge amount of money on the research and deveiop-ment for suoh vaooines with great suooess—in the iast 8 years or so, approximateiy 12 new vaccines have been deveioped and proven effeo-tive on rhesus monkeys. 

Commonly known as treatment for dog bite. Rabies is usually caused by the bite of infected dog, monkey, cat, etc. and can lead to hydrophobia (feeling of fear of water) and death. A series of five injections need to be given. Usually rabies vaccine is given once the dog bite has already taken place. 

Whilst attenuated cercariae can induce protection reliably, their short lifespan (hours) makes them unsuitable for use in the field. Attempts were made to circumvent the problem by cryopreservation of attenuated larvae (Bickle and James, 1 978). Although up to 50% protection was achieved in cynomolgus monkeys (Murrell et a/., 1979), baboons (Damian et a/., 1984), mice (Lewis et a/., 1984) and guinea pigs (Xu et a/., 1 991), the lack of reproducibility in the cryopreservation process (Lewis et a/., 1984) meant that this approach eventually petered out. Even with improved cryopreservation, before such a vaccine could become a reality, the ethical and safety issues surrounding the administration to humans of large numbers of attenuated parasites with unknown migration characteristics would need to be addressed. 

Boulanger, D., Warter, A., Trottein, F., Mauny, F., Bremond, P., Audibert, F., Couret, D., Kadri, S., Godin, C., Sellin, E., Pierce, R.J., Lecocq, J.P., Sellin, B. and Capron, A. (1 995) Vaccination of patas monkeys experimentally infected with Schistosoma haematobium using a recombinant glutathione S-transferase cloned from 5. mansoni. Parasite Immunology 1 7, 361-369. 

Sadun, E.H. and Lin, S.S. (1959) Studies on the host-parasite relationships to Schistosoma japonicum. IV. Resistance acquired by infection, by vaccination and by the injection of immune serum, in monkeys, rabbits and mice. Journal of Parasitology 45, 543-548. 

Especially in the application of DNA vaccination, jet injection has been found to increase efficacy when compared to the injection of DNA by needle and syringe. This has first been described for the classical i.m. route in rabbits (Davis et al., 1994) and monkeys (Gramzinski et al., 1998). However, with the development... 

After this period, there was an accelerated use of animal cells. Namalwa cells (Finter et al., 1991) were used to produce alpha-interferon by Wellcome in 1986. Vero cells (a cell line derived from monkey) were used for anti-rabies vaccine. Hybridomas were considered acceptable for mAb production and the use of genetically modified CHO (Chinese hamster ovary) cells was authorized for the production of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) by Genentech in 1986. 

The use of Cipro to treat anthrax infection emanated from research carried out in 1990 at Fort Detrick, Maryland (see later). The army was concerned that Saddam Hussein could introduce germ warfare in the Gulf War in the form of anthrax. Sixty monkeys were infected with a strain of Bacillus anthracis by aerosol and were divided into six groups. One group received a vaccine alone another received the vaccine and antibiotics and three groups were treated for 30 days with one of three different classes of antibiotics—penicillin, doxycycline, or Cipro. A control group received saline injections. 

An example of the role(s) that primate research has played is in the development of the poliomyelitis vaccines. Although many studies on poliomyelitis in humans were conducted in the late nineteenth century, the cause of the disease remained unknown until scientists succeeded in transmitting the virus to monkeys in 1908. There followed many years of research with primates until scientists were able, in the early 1950s, to grow the virus in human cell cultures and development of a vaccine became possible. At that point in time, in order to ensure the safety and effectiveness of the vaccines, tests were conducted with monkeys. Furthermore, in order to produce the vaccines in pure form in great quantities, it was necessary to use kidney tissue taken from monkeys. Today, an alternative to the use of monkey kidneys has been developed for the production of the vaccine. 

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