Mineral and vitamins

Most magnesium is located in the aleurone layer and is commonly bound to phytates. Therefore, most of the magnesium is lost during milling processes (Table 3.6). Cereals are also considered an important source of potassium, but they are practically devoid of sodium. Most of the iron, zinc, and copper are in the pericarp, germ, and aleurone therefore, considerable amounts are lost during milling operations. 

Cereals are considered one of the best sources of B-vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, and folates, but a poor source of fat-soluble vitamins and vitamin Bi2. Most B-vitamins are associated with the aleurone. The niacin associated with cereals is found in free and bound forms. Bound niacin is not well utilized by the human system. Interestingly, the alkaline treatment of maize for production of tortillas and other traditional food products increases niacin bioavailability because the alkali and heat treatment breaks the glycosidic bond that binds free niacin with the other components (Chapters 9 and 17). 

FIGURE 3.7 Chemical structure of B-vitamins found in cereal grains, (a) Thiamine, (b) Riboflavin, (c) Pyridoxine. (d) Niacin, (e) Folic acid. 

Nutrient Maize Brown White Hard Duru 

Nutrient Rye Triticale Oats C roats Pearl Foxtail Finger Proso Kodo Tef Fonio 

Nowadays saponins have been studied because different beneficial properties to health have been described. Saponins possess a broad variety of biological effects analgesic, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, and cytotoxic activity, effect on the absorption of minerals and vitamins and on animal growth, hemolytic and immunosti-mulatory effects, increased permeability of the intestinal mucosa neuro-protective action, and reduction of fat absorption (Gu lii-Ustundag and Mazza, 2007). However, the biological properties of quinoa saponins require further study. 

Finally, saponins have commercial-industrial importance as they are used in the preparation of soaps, detergents, and shampoos. 

QS are also rich in micronutrients such as minerals and vitamins. Table 1.8 shows the mineral content of QS and quinoa flour. The main minerals are potassium, phosphorus, and magnesium (Table 1.8). According to the National Academy of Sciences (2004) the magnesium, manganese, copper, and iron present in 100 g of QS cover the daily needs of 

TABLE 1.8 Mineral composition whole quinoa seed, dehulled quinoa seed, quinoa flour, oat, barley (mg/100 g) 

In their research, Konishi et al. (2004) found that abrasion of QS (for saponin elimination) caused specifically a decrease in calcium content. On the other hand, they found that the distribution of minerals in QS revealed that phosphorus and magnesium were localized in embryonic tissue, while calcium and potassium were present in the pericarp (Table 1.8). 

---

Butter, fresh and salted, was once a primary trade commodity, but is no longer in as high a demand. There has been a shift in emphasis from fat content to the protein, mineral, and vitamin content of milk and milk products, particularly in developed countries. 

Micro-organisms are rich in protein. Microbial cells can contain as much protein as conventional foods. Bacteria can contain 60-65% (as a % of dry weight) protein whereas fungi and algae contain about 40%. In addition, microbial cells can be a rich source of fibre, unsaturated fats, minerals and vitamins. They are low in saturated fats and sodium. 

Besides water, the diet must provide metabolic fuels (mainly carbohydrates and lipids), protein (for growth and turnover of tissue proteins), fiber (for roughage), minerals (elements with specific metabolic functions), and vitamins and essential fatty acids (organic compounds needed in small amounts for essential metabolic and physiologic functions). The polysaccharides, tri-acylglycerols, and proteins that make up the bulk of the diet must be hydrolyzed to their constituent monosaccharides, fatty acids, and amino acids, respectively, before absorption and utilization. Minerals and vitamins must be released from the complex matrix of food before they can be absorbed and utifized. 

Globally, undernutrition is widespread, leading to impaired growth, defective immune systems, and reduced work capacity. By contrast, in developed countries, there is often excessive food consumption (especially of fat), leading to obesity and to the development of cardiovascular disease and some forms of cancer. Deficiencies of vitamin A, iron, and iodine pose major health concerns in many countries, and deficiencies of other vitamins and minerals are a major cause of iU health. In developed countries, nutrient deficiency is rare, though there are vulnerable sections of the population at risk. Intakes of minerals and vitamins that are adequate to prevent deficiency may be inadequate to promote optimum health and longevity. 

There have been relatively few studies comparing the mineral and vitamin composition of milk from different dairy systems. Toledo et al. (2002) compared milk samples from organic and conventional dairy systems in Sweden, for iodine and selenium, and found that levels of selenium but not iodine were lower in organic milk. Studies in Denmark compared the vitamin E... 

In conventional systems, feeds are supplemented with minerals and vitamins. Studies indicate that supplementing the winter feed of cows leads to enhanced levels of Ca, P, Mg, Na, K, and particularly Cu, in the milk of cows receiving a metal amino acid chelate and vitamins (Strusinska et al., 2004). 

A number of nutrients affect bone integrity early in life. While the role of certain minerals and vitamins bearing on skeletal integrity is well established, that of protein remains controversial, especially when consumed in excessive amounts. Protein-included calciuric effect as observed in adult man and animals may also occur early in life and thus conceivably affect peak bone mass adversely, particularly when calcium intakes may be marginal. In studies reported here (test model young female rats), it was found that a diet approaching adequacy in protein and based equally on plant and animal sources would favor some parameters which bear on skeletal mass at maturity more than other combinations of protein consumed. 

Nutritional factors may influence the toxicity of pesticides. Research in this area has primarily focused on the role of dietary proteins, particularly sulfur-containing amino acids, trace minerals, and vitamins A, C, D, and E. Studies in rats show that inadequate dietary protein enhances the toxicity of most pesticides but decreases, or fails to affect, the toxicity of a few. The results of these studies have shown that at one-seventh or less normal dietary protein, the hepatic toxicity of heptachlor is diminished as evidenced by fewer enzyme changes (Boyd 1969 Shakman 1974). The lower-protein diets may decrease metabolism of heptachlor to heptachlor epoxide. 

Brassicas—the popular term for members of the cabbage family-are grown for their leaves, buds, roots, stems, or shoots. They thrive in cool, moist climates and are very nutritious, being rich in minerals and vitamins. 

Vegetables should be cooked as lightly as possible, and the cooking water (which contains minerals and vitamins) used in soups and stocks. Salads and raw vegetables are particnlarly good sources of vitamins and minerals. Seeds are more nutritious if they are ground or milled. Dried frnits are good sources of some minerals. 

The animals basic nutritional requirements must be met, with regard to the levels of minerals and vitamins, to ensure their health and welfare. In some countries, supplementation with vitamins, trace elements and minerals is not a routine practice, whether certified organic or not. Another aspect of the interaction between animal health and nutrition regarding worm control is feeding with bioactive forages, which, for example Hoste et al. (2004) and Thamsborg et al (2005) describe, based on an EU-funded project WORMCOPS. 

In defining the nutritional equivalence of dairy foods, FDA considered only 11 to 15 nutrients for milk substitutes, 1 nutrient for cream substitutes, and 4 to 9 nutrients for cheese substitutes (FDA 1978). Yet, data from the Consumer and Food Economics Institute, USDA (1976), reveal that traditional milk, cream, and cheese contain an array of nutrients including protein, fat, carbohydrate, and at least 15 minerals and vitamins and 18 amino acids. Thus, under FDA s proposal (FDA 1978), which has been withdrawn (FDA 1983) but, as mentioned above, may in effect be applied, a substitute dairy product could be declared nutritionally equivalent to its traditional counterpart and yet (1) not contain all of the nutrients in the traditional food, or (2) contain some or all of these other nutrients but in lesser quantities, or (3) contain some of the nutrients such as sodium in excessive amounts, or (4) contain more or less energy (NDC 1983C). 

The claimed body-building effect of the so-called anabolic compounds reflects their ability to promote muscular development, even beyond physiological limits, and this can bring with it cardiovascular complications. Surreptitious misuse by athletes remains a recurrent problem in professional sport (73) apart from the cardiovascular risks, one observes numerous physiological changes, including effects on plasma levels of enzymes, minerals and vitamins and reduced concentrations of HDL cholesterol (74). 

Bread is an excellent staple supplying key nutrients carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Its nutritive value affects a great majority of the human population. The marked increase in nutritive value of microwave or steamed breads, observed in the present study, indicates that those processes deserve attention or that conventional baking warrants some modification. 

All the major ingredients in the complete feed must be approved by OFDC or an agency certified by OFDC. The ingredients plus additive minerals and vitamins cannot be less than 95% of the complete feed. 

Additive minerals and vitamins can be derived from natural or synthesized products, but the complete feed cannot contain prohibited additives or preservatives. 

Soybean meal is generally low in minerals and vitamins (except choline and folic acid). About two-thirds of the P in soybeans is bound as phytate and is mostly unavailable to animals. This compound also chelates mineral elements including Ca, magnesium, potassium, iron and zinc, rendering them unavailable to poultry. Therefore, it is important that diets based on soybean meal contain adequate amounts of these trace minerals. Another approach to the phytate problem is to add phytase, a phytic acid degrading enzyme, to the feed to release phytin-bound P. A benefit of this approach is that less P needs to be added to the diet, reducing excess P loading into the environment. 

Feed peas, like cereal grains, are low in Ca but contain a slightly higher level of P (about 4g/kg). They contain about 12g/kg phytate, similar to that in soybeans (Reddy et al., 1982). The levels of trace minerals and vitamins in peas are similar to those found in cereal grains. 

However, it is recommended that the NRC (1994) derived values for mineral and vitamin requirements be adopted without modification, to help ensure correct skeletal growth and avoidance of foot and leg problems. Conventional diets are usually formulated with higher levels of minerals and vitamins but this approach is not suggested for organic diets, to try and minimize nutrient levels above those required for normal growth and reproduction. 

Dica Icium phosphate, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, trace mineral, and vitamins. 

In every study, light was required for the effects of the inhibitors to become apparent. Chloroplasts of herbicide-treated plants kept in the dark resembled, in all respects, chloroplasts of the dark-control plants. The modifications produced in chloroplasts are not unique to herbicides. Mineral and vitamin deficiencies, antibiotics, unnatural pyrimidines, and genetic alterations all cause similar aberrant ultrastruetural changes in chloroplasts however, the extent of the disruptions produced by herbicides is more extreme. The changes induced by herbicides are similar in many respects to those that occur in normal senescence, reflecting the characteristic pattern associated with degeneration and death of a cell. 

---