Lithium primary

Lithium primary cells have also been introduced up to the AA-size. These voltage compatible cells have a working voltage of 1.5 V, and can deliver up to four times the energy of a comparable alkaline cell. 

Lithium oxide(s), 15 134, 141 Lithium perchlorate, 3 417 15 141-142 dessicant, 3 360 in lithium cells, 3 459 Lithium peroxide, 15 142 18 393 Lithium phosphate, 15 142 Lithium-polymer cells, 3 551 in development, 3 43 It Lithium primary cells, 3 459-466 Lithium production, 9 640 Lithium products, sales of, 15 121 Lithium salts, 15 135-136, 142 Lithium secondary cells, 3 549-551 ambient temperature, 3 541-549 economic aspects, 3 551-552 high temperature, 3 549-551 Lithium silicate glass-ceramics, 12 631-632... 

Primary batteries, 3 434—469. See also Alkaline primary cells Batteries Carbon-zinc cells Lithium primary cells Secondary batteries defined, 3 409... 

All lithium based batteries use nonaqueous electrolytes because of the reactivity of lithium in aqueous solution and because of the electrolyte s stability at high voltage. The majority of these cells use microporous membranes made of polyolefins. In some cases, nonwovens made of polyolefins are either used alone or with microporous separators. This section will mainly focus on separators used in secondary lithium batteries followed by a brief summary of separators used in lithium primary batteries. 

The separators used in major lithium primary systems are listed in Table 8. The majority of the lithium primary systems shown in Table 8 use microporous membranes (single layer PP or PE) as separators. Some of the systems are discussed below. 

Demand pacemakers are very low current devices, requiring only 25-50 jiW for sensing and 60-100 pW for stimulation. In contrast, implanted ventricular defibrillators (Fig. 1.3) must be able to deliver short electric pulses of 25-40 J (e.g. 2 A at 2 V for 10 s) which can shock the heart into normal rhythm, and hence require a much higher rate battery. The most common system is a lithium-silver vanadium oxide cell with a liquid-organic based electrolyte. More than 80 000 such units have been implanted. Implanted drug delivery devices also use lithium primary batteries, as do neurostimulators and bone growth stimulators. 

Lithium primary cells have typical energy densities of up to 250 Wh/kg (500 Wh/dm3), which are twice as high as the best conventional aqueous... 

Both of these copper-based lithium primaries are manufactured as button and bobbin-configured cylindrical cells. Copper oxyphosphate cells find particular application in high temperature environments. 

The commercially most important voltage compatible lithium primary cell uses iron disulphide, FeS2, as cathode. The overall cell reaction may be written as... 

Power system. Previously, rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells were used in implant systems. More recently, the power systems of implantable medical electronic devices have become so small that a single AA size lithium primary cell can be used without recharging for more than 5 years. 

The lithium sulfur dioxide and the lithium thionyl chloride systems are specialty batteries. Both have liquid cathode reactants where the electrolyte solvent is the cathode-active material. Both use polymer-bonded carbon cathode constructions. The Li-S02 is a military battery, and the Li-SOCl2 system is used to power automatic meter readers and for down-hole oil well logging. The lithium primary battery market is estimated to be about 1.5 billion in 2007. 

The second lithium primary cell is the Li-Mn02 [18]. For use in lithium cells, the high purity EMD must be heat treated at 350°C-375°C to activate and modify the crystal structure, as well as remove any water. Carbon black is used as a conductive diluent in the cathode. The cell electrolyte is propylene carbonate and 1,2-dimethoxyethane with LiAsF6. The cell reaction is... 

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