From carbon dioxide

Chlorophyll is present in all green plants, and is essential to the life of the plant, as it acts as a catalyst in the photosynthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. 

Chill the concentrated solution of the amine hydrochloride in ice-water, and then cautiously with stirring add an excess of 20% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to liberate the amine. Pour the mixture into a separating-funnel, and rinse out the flask or basin with ether into the funnel. Extract the mixture twice with ether (2 X25 ml.). Dry the united ether extracts over flake or powdered sodium hydroxide, preferably overnight. Distil the dry filtered extract from an apparatus similar to that used for the oxime when the ether has been removed, distil the amine slowly under water-pump pressure, using a capillary tube having a soda-lime guard - tube to ensure that only dry air free from carbon dioxide passes through the liquid. Collect the amine, b.p. 59-61°/12 mm. at atmospheric pressure it has b.p. 163-164°. Yield, 18 g. 

Ethylene (as well as propylene) produced from carbon dioxide subsequently allows ready preparation of the whole array of hydrocarbons, as well as their derivatives and products that have become essential to our everyday life. Whereas the nineteenth century relied mostly on coal for energy as well as derived chemical products, the twentieth century greatly supplemented this with petroleum and nat-... 

Of all the monosaccharides d (+) glucose is the best known most important and most abundant Its formation from carbon dioxide water and sunlight is the central theme of photosynthesis Carbohydrate formation by photosynthesis is estimated to be on the order of 10 tons per year a source of stored energy utilized directly or indi rectly by all higher forms of life on the planet Glucose was isolated from raisins m 1747 and by hydrolysis of starch m 1811 Its structure was determined in work culmi nating m 1900 by Emil Fischer... 

One method for measuring the temperature of the sea is to measure this ratio. Of course, if you were to do it now, you would take a thermometer and not a mass spectrometer. But how do you determine the temperature of the sea as it was 10,000 years ago The answer lies with tiny sea creatures called diatoms. These have shells made from calcium carbonate, itself derived from carbon dioxide in sea water. As the diatoms die, they fall to the sea floor and build a sediment of calcium carbonate. If a sample is taken from a layer of sediment 10,000 years old, the carbon dioxide can be released by addition of acid. If this carbon dioxide is put into a suitable mass spectrometer, the ratio of carbon isotopes can be measured accurately. From this value and the graph of solubilities of isotopic forms of carbon dioxide with temperature (Figure 46.5), a temperature can be extrapolated. This is the temperature of the sea during the time the diatoms were alive. To conduct such experiments in a significant manner, it is essential that the isotope abundance ratios be measured very accurately. 

In addition to the processes mentioned above, there are also ongoing efforts to synthesize formamide direcdy from carbon dioxide [124-38-9J, hydrogen [1333-74-0] and ammonia [7664-41-7] (29—32). Catalysts that have been proposed are Group VIII transition-metal coordination compounds. Under moderate reaction conditions, ie, 100—180°C, 1—10 MPa (10—100 bar), turnovers of up to 1000 mole formamide per mole catalyst have been achieved. However, since expensive noble metal catalysts are needed, further work is required prior to the technical realization of an industrial process for formamide synthesis based on carbon dioxide. 

DMF can also be manufactured from carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and dimethylamine ia the presence of halogen-containing transition-metal compounds (18). The reaction has also been performed with metal oxides and salts of alkaU metals as promoters (19). 

The electrons undergo the equivalent of a partial oxidation process ia a dark reaction to a positive potential of +0.4 V, and Photosystem I then raises the potential of the electrons to as high as —0.7 V. Under normal photosynthesis conditions, these electrons reduce tryphosphopyridine-nucleotide (TPN) to TPNH, which reduces carbon dioxide to organic plant material. In the biophotolysis of water, these electrons are diverted from carbon dioxide to a microbial hydrogenase for reduction of protons to hydrogen ... 

Aragonite. Calcium carbonate is a common deposit in shallow tropical waters as a constituent of muds, or in the upper part of coral reefs where it precipitates from carbon dioxide-rich waters supersaturated with carbonate from intense biological photosynthesis and solar heating. Deposits of ooHtic aragonite, CaCO, extending over 250,000 km in water less than 5 m deep ate mined for industrial purposes in the Bahamas for export to the United States (19). 

Potassium Permanganate. Probably the most widely used process for removing traces of hydrogen sulfide from carbon dioxide is to scmb the gas with an aqueous solution saturated with potassium permanganate [7722-64-7]. Sodium carbonate is added to the solution as buffer. The reaction is as foUows ... 

Active Carbon. The process of adsorbiag impurities from carbon dioxide on active carbon or charcoal has been described ia connection with the Backus process of purifyiag carbon dioxide from fermentation processes. Space velocity and reactivation cycle vary with each appHcation. The use of active carbon need not be limited to the fermentation iadustries but, where hydrogen sulfide is the only impurity to be removed, the latter two processes are usually employed (see Carbon, activated carbon). 

In the presence of lime water more complex reactions occur, leading to the formation of aldoses and hexoses (iv). This particular reaction is of interest to the biochemist as it is now generally held that optically active plant carbohydrates are obtained from carbon dioxide and water via formaldehyde. 

Fluoroncytrifluoromethane is prepared in a process that uses cesium fluoride as a catalyst for the reaction between fluorine and carbon monoxide [/ij (equation 1) Bisfluoroxydifluoromethane is prepared in a similar manner from carbon dioxide [id], Fluoroxymethane was prepared recently [14]... 

The probable cause of the accident was overfilling due to level indicator failure. Water removal from carbon dioxide was not always sufficient to assure good pressure and level readings in the tanks. Residual water could cause meters to fail from ice formation. 

The fixation of carbon dioxide to form hexose, the dark reactions of photosynthesis, requires considerable energy. The overall stoichiometry of this process (Eq. 22.3) involves 12 NADPH and 18 ATP. To generate 12 equivalents of NADPH necessitates the consumption of 48 Einsteins of light, minimally 170 kj each. However, if the preceding ratio of l ATP per NADPH were correct, insufficient ATP for COg fixation would be produced. Six additional Einsteins would provide the necessary two additional ATP. Prom 54 Einsteins, or 9180 kJ, one mole of hexose would be synthesized. The standard free energy change, AG°, for hexose formation from carbon dioxide and water (the exact reverse of cellular respiration) is +2870 kj/mol. 

All the O atoms evolved as Og come from water none comes from carbon dioxide. But 12 O atoms are evolved as 6 Og, and only 6 O atoms appear as 6 HgO in the equation. Also, 6 COg have 12 O atoms, yet there are only 6 O atoms in CgHigOg. How can yon account for these discrepancies Hint Consider the partial reactions of photosynthesis ATP synthesis, NADP reduction, photolysis of water, and the overall reaction for hexose synthesis in the Calvin-Benson cycle.)... 

The employment ol water iu the steam generating flask which bas been insulicieDlly boiled to Irce it from carbon dioxide and other... 

It should here be noted that the distilled water in the steam generating flask must have been allowed to become entirely free from carbon dioxide by at least half an hour s preliminary boiling. 

Soil reaction (pH) The relationship between the environment and development of acid or alkaline conditions in soil has been discussed with respect to formation of soils from the parent rock materials. Soil acidity comes in part by the formation of carbonic acid from carbon dioxide of biological origin and water. Other acidic development may come from acid residues of weathering, shifts in mineral types, loss of alkaline or basic earth elements by leaching, formation of organic or inorganic acids by microbial activity, plant root secretions, and man-made pollution of the soil, especially by industrial wastes. 

Kasuganobiosamine (4) by Hot Alkaline Hydrolysis. An aqueous solution (150 ml.) saturated with barium hydroxide was added to a solution of kasugamycin hydrochloride (5.3 grams, 12.22 mmoles) dissolved in 50 ml. of water free from carbon dioxide. The solution was refluxed on a steam bath for 10 hours. By the similar treatment of the reaction mixture as described in the case of cold alkaline hydrolysis, ammonia (11.10 mmoles), barium oxalate (3.037 grams, 12.48 mmoles) and kasuganobiosamine (3.638 grams, 11.80 mmoles) were obtained. 

Kasuganobiosamine (4) and Kasugamycinic Acid (9a) by cold Alkaline Hydrolysis. Kasugamycin hydrochloride (622 mg., 1.43 mmoles) was dissolved in 5 ml. of water free from carbon dioxide and 50 ml. of water saturated with barium hydroxide was added. The solution was allowed to stand at room temperature for 36 hours. Ammonia (0.30 mmole) was produced and barium oxalate (199 mg., 0.80 mmole) was obtained. After removal of barium oxalate by filtering, the filtrate was neutralized with dry ice. After removal of barium carbonate by filtering, the filtrate was adjusted to pH 7.0 and placed on a column of Amberlite CG-50 (ammonium form, 1.5 x 22 cm.), allowed to pass with a rate of... 

Strongly basic anion exchangers (polystyrene quaternary ammonium resins). These resins (Duolite A113, Amberlite 400, etc.) are usually supplied in the chloride form. For conversion into the hydroxide form, treatment with 1M sodium hydroxide is employed, the volume used depending upon the extent of conversion desired two bed volumes are satisfactory for most purposes. The rinsing of the resin free from alkali should be done with de-ionised water free from carbon dioxide to avoid converting the resin into the carbonate form about 2 litres of such water will suffice for 100 g of resin. An increase in volume of about 20 per cent occurs in the conversion of the resin from the chloride to the hydroxide form. 

Details for the preparation of the solutions referred to in the table are as follows (note that concentrations are expressed in molalities) all reagents must be of the highest purity. Freshly distilled water protected from carbon dioxide during cooling, having a pH of 6.7-7.3, should be used, and is essential for basic standards. De-ionised water is also suitable. Standard buffer solutions may be stored in well-closed Pyrex or polythene bottles. If the formation of mould or sediment is visible the solution must be discarded. 

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