Carbon dioxide, from fuel refining

Ideally, the combustion process would produce only carbon dioxide—from the combustion of coal—or carbon dioxide and water—from the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas and refined peti oleum fuels. In practice, however, fossil fuels contain a percentage of materials other than carbon and hydrogen, such as sulfur, metals (including iron, mercury, and lead), and nonmetals (including phosphorus, silicon, and arsenic). In addition, air used to supply oxygen for combustion also... 

Like natural gas, the producer gas from coal is a clean fuel. Additionally, it is a rich source of chemicals. Coal-derived gas can also be recombined into liquid fuels, including high-grade transportation fuels, and a range of petrochemicals that serve as feedstock workhorses in the chemicals and refining industries. In contrast to conventional combustion, carbon dioxide exits a coal gasifier in a concentrated stream rather than diluted in a high volume of flue gas. This allows the carbon dioxide to be captured more effectively and then used... 

Methane reforming units receive methane-rich gas from a cryogenic product recovery facility and subject the gas to partial oxidation. Some of the carbon dioxide content is removed and the gas recycled to the reactors. Once liquids are recovered, the stream goes to essentially conventional refining units. The plant s production is primarily transport fuels. Most of the gasoline production is currently sold to other refineries for blending with their stocks, but a portion of the product is marketed directly to consumers. 

Hydrocarbons derived from fossil fuel are the main source of energy and raw material for petrochemicals in the industrial world. When not used in combustion to generate power and heat, fossil fuels are refined in various petrochemical transformation processes into purer and higher-valued products. This chapter continues the discussion by Leo Manzer to address opportunities for research in chemical sciences to reduce carbon (dioxide) emission. Although the large majority of carbon emission is from power generation and transportation, the discussion here focuses on hydrocarbon conversion in the chemical processing industry, with only a brief discussion of hydrocarbon conversion in fuel cell applications. 

The EU ETS cap and trade scheme is calculated to accord with the principles of the Kyoto Protocol. The scheme, which is currently in the 2008-2012 phase called the Kyoto Phase is applicable to approximately 10,000 industries that include, but are not limited to oil drilling and refining, manufacture of ceramic glass and cement products, fossil fuel based energy production pulp, paper and textile manufacture, issues each industry with an allocation or quantity of allowances, each of which allows the concerned industry to emit one million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide. The quantification is based on what are called historical aviation emissions that are defined as the mean average of the annual emissions in the calendar years 2004, 2005 and 2006 from aircraft departing or arriving from a member State of the EU . 

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