Environmental Impact and Processing

Vibrational microspectroscopic techniques turned out as a promising tool for breeding control, offering the opportunity of nondestructive analysis of plant material. 

The group of Wetzel [83] investigated the process of preharvest germination in intact wheat kernels by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIRS) FPA imaging. Smail etal. [84] could differentiate sprouted and unsprouted wheat kernels based on the developing embryo already 6h after germination by nondestructive NIRS imaging. A subsequent study by MIR 

Uptake and Fate of Environmental Contaminants/Crop Protection Products 

The high potential of nondestructive microspectroscopic methods is represented by the increasing number of recent publications, dealing with the uptake and metabolism of environmental contaminants and crop protection products. 

Dokken et al. could visualize the benzotriazole (BT) uptake and possible lignin incorporation by synchrotron FT-IR mapping of hydroponically grown sunflower root tips. Mapped sections of secondary roots show characteristic aromatic bands of BT, and distribution maps indicate an increased concentration mainly in the xylem gone along with an alteration in the protein production and arrangement [91]. 

---

This paper presents an approach for identifying improved business and environmental performance of a process design. The design task is formulated as a multi-objective optimisation problem where consideration is given to not only the traditional economic criteria, but also to the multiple environmental concerns. Finally, using plant-wide substitution of alternative materials as an example, it is shown how potential step-change improvements in both life cycle environmental impact and process economics can be achieved. 

Methods for the large-scale production of hydrogen must be evaluated in the context of environmental impact and cost. Synthesis gas generation is the principal area requiring environmental controls common to all syngas-based processes. The nature of the controls depends on the feedstock and method of processing. 

The Chemical Process Industry (CPI) uses various quantitative and qualitative techniques to assess the reliability and risk of process equipment, process systems, and chemical manufacturing operations. These techniques identify the interactions of equipment, systems, and persons that have potentially undesirable consequences. In the case of reliability analyses, the undesirable consequences (e.g., plant shutdown, excessive downtime, or production of off-specification product) are those incidents which reduce system profitability through loss of production and increased maintenance costs. In the case of risk analyses, the primary concerns are human injuries, environmental impacts, and system damage caused by occurrence of fires, explosions, toxic material releases, and related hazards. Quantification of risk in terms of the severity of the consequences and the likelihood of occurrence provides the manager of the system with an important decisionmaking tool. By using the results of a quantitative risk analysis, we are better able to answer such questions as, Which of several candidate systems poses the least risk Are risk reduction modifications necessary and What modifications would be most effective in reducing risk ... 

Procedures should be established to periodically monitor all operations that may have an environmental impact, and similar scheduled periodic checks should be made to ensure that procedures and operations are still in line with regulatory and other requirements. If equipment is involved in the monitoring process then procedures should also be in place to ensure correct calibration. Procedures are also needed to record any preventative or corrective actions identified and to ensure that they are completed to schedule. The whole EMS should be audited periodically to check that it is consistent with the planned policy and has been properly implemented. The details of audits should be discussed and reviewed by management at the highest level with a view to continuous improvement through the modification of both policy and procedures. 

The ECO method was developed to aid environmental impact and cost optimisation of chemical synthesis pathways or processes suitable for the research and development (R D) stage. In order to represent terms of ecological as well as economic sustainability, three objective functions which incorporate (i) energy demand (EF), (ii) risks concerning human health and the environment (EHF) and (iii) costs (CE), were defined. Their calculation follows the life cycle approach and is based on the data available already in R D. Because the application of a comprehensive LCA is both, too complex and based on data which are partially not available at the R D stage, the determination of the three objective functions is based on the SLCA approach extended by economic issues. The key objectives are introduced below. 

Synthetic-based muds are mineral oil muds in which the oil phase has been replaced with a synthetic fluid, such as ether, ester, PAO, or linear alkylbenzene, and are available from major mud companies. The mud selection process is based on the mud s technical performance, environmental impact, and financial impact. Synthetic muds are expensive. Two factors influence the direct cost unit or per-barrel cost and mud losses. Synthetic muds are the technical equivalent of oil-based muds when drilling intermediate hole sections. They are technically superior to all water-based systems when drilling reactive shales in directional wells. However, with efficient solids-control equipment, optimized drilling, and good housekeeping practices, the cost of the synthetic mud can be brought to a level comparable with oil-based mud [1308]. 

Figure 6. Qualitative illustration of the linkages between the environmental impact and sustainability of a system or process, and its exergy efficiency...

The waste streams created by utility systems tend, on the whole, to be less environmentally harmful than process waste. Unfortunately, complacency would be misplaced. Even though utility waste tends to be less harmful than process waste, the quantities of utility waste tend to be larger than process waste. This sheer volume can then result in greater environmental impact than process waste. Gaseous combustion products contribute in various ways to the greenhouse effect, acid rain and can produce a direct health hazard because of the formation of smog. The aqueous waste generated by utility systems can also be a major problem if it is contaminated. 

Each product system consists of a variable number of processes involved in the product life cycle. However, the product under consideration is often related to other processes that may no longer be important for the LCA study. The system boundary serves to the separation of essential and non-essential processes of the product life cycle. Since the choice of system boundaries significantly affects LCA study outcomes and in addition, its intensity and complexity, system boundaries should always be well considered and clearly defined. The choice of system boundaries is carried out with regard to the studied processes, studied environmental impacts and selected complexity of the study. Not-including any life cycle stages, processes or data must be logically reasoned and clearly explained [32]. 

There are a number of concerns related to economic valuation of environmental impacts and health effects. These concerns are often valid and need to be stated explicitly so that a process of continuous improvements can be assured. 

Moore, E. B., 1997, The Environmental Impact Statement Process and Environmental Law. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH, 148 pp. 

LCAs also focns on the environmental impacts of processes and do not address the social or economic impacts. Althongh there is still debate about the usefulness of snch analyses, LCAs do provide a means of examining the environmental impact of a process in a holistic sense. 

Abstract The feasibility of a method of concentrate management depends on a wide range of factors. The selection is very much site specific, and for each site often only one or two concentrate management options are feasible. Of particular importance is the quality of the concentrate, the cost of the process, any potential environmental impacts and regulations surrounding the method of concentrate management. 

---