Cited

Alberty, R. A., and I. Oppenheimer, A Continuous Thermodynamics Approach to Chemical Equilibrium Within an Isomer Group, /. Chem. Phys., 81, 4603 (1984). 

Prolegomena to the Rational Analysis of Systems of Chemical Reactions. II Some Addenda, Arch. Rat. Meek Anal. 27, 356 (1968). 

Gavalas, On the Theory of Reactions in Continuous Mixtures, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A260, 351 (1966). 

Astarita, G., Lumping Nonlinear Kinetics Apparent Overall Order of Reaction, AIChE J. 35, 529 (1989). 

Astarita, G., and R. Ocone, Lumping Nonlinear Kinetics, AIChE J., 34,1299 (1988). 

What are the basic, always-true thermodynamic relations  

Which thermodynamic properties are fundamental and how are they related  

Kometani, J., Preprints of 28th lUPAC Macromolecular Symposium, Amherst, Mass. July, 12-16, 1982. 

Manahan, Stanley E., Environmental Chemistry, 9th ed., Taylor Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2009. 

Manahan, Stanley E., Green Chemistry and the Ten Commandments of Sustainability, 3rd ed., ChemChar Research, Columbia, MO, 2011. 

Oldfield, Frank, and Will Steffen, The Earth System, in Global Change and the Earth System A Planet Under Pressure, Will Steffen, Ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, 2004. 

Bresler, S, E., 1966, Introduction to Molecular Biology, Gordon and Breach, New York. Campbell, P. N., 1965, in Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology, Vol. 15, Pergamon Press, Oxford—London, p. 3. 

Caskey, T., Wilcox, M., Anderson, F., Scolnick, E.,.Tompkins, R., and Nireriberg, 

Chapeville, F., 1964, In Molecular Biology, Problems and Perspectives, ed. A. E. Braunshtein, Izd. Nauka, Moscow, p. 117. 

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Pure component parameters for 92 components, and as many binary interaction parameters as have been established, are cited in Appendix C. These parameters can be loaded from formated cards, or other input file containing card images, by subroutine PARIN. 

Hydrolases. Enzymes catalysing the hydrolytic cleavage ofC —O, C —N and C —C bonds. The systematic name always includes hydrolase but the recommended name is often formed by the addition of ase to the substrate. Examples are esterases, glucosidases, peptidases, proteinases, phospholipases. Other bonds may be cleaved besides those cited, e.g. during the action of sulphatases and phosphatases. 

Another method which should be cited apart from the others is to pyrolyze the sample in a hydrogen atmosphere. The sulfur is converted to H2S which darkens lead-acetate-impregnated paper. The speed of darkening, measured by an optical device, provides the concentration measurement. This method attains sensitivity thresholds of 0.02 ppm. 

Before ehding this presentation on mass spectrometry, we should cite the existence of spectrometers for which the method of sorting ions coming from the source is different from the magnetic sector. These are mainly quadripolar analyzers and, to a lesser degree, analyzers measuring the ion s time of flight. 

The interfacial tension of a petroleum fraction at 20°C can be estimated by the following formula, cited by the API ... 

Among several other gasoline volatility criteria, we will cite the V/L ratio and the relations existing between the various ways of expressing the vapor pressure. 

Some empirical formulas have been devised to link the cetane index to the Diesel Index (D.l.) or even directly to the aniline point. We will cite two such formulas here in order to illustrate their comparative values C ... 

The flash point depends closely on the distillation initial point. The following empirical relationship is often cited ([, 1 ... 

This is the essential characteristic for every lubricant. The kinematic viscosity is most often measured by recording the time needed for the oil to flow down a calibrated capillary tube. The viscosity varies with the pressure but the influence of temperature is much greater it decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature and there is abundant literature concerning the equations and graphs relating these two parameters. One can cite in particular the ASTM D 341 standard. 

The standards for tests, which are cited in reference to the standards for characteristics. In order for a client and his supplier to compare their results during a commercial transaction, it is important that their laboratories rigorously follow the same operating procedures. The procedures are thus precisely defined in the standards. 

There are many professional organizations their influence is more or less in proportion to the number of members and they can be national or international. Among those dealing with petroleum products, the following examples are cited ... 

Among the other separation processes, one can cite the following ... 

We cite isomerization of Cs-Ce paraffinic cuts, aliphatic alkylation making isoparaffinic gasoline from C3-C5 olefins and isobutane, and etherification of C4-C5 olefins with the C1-C2 alcohols. This type of refinery can need more hydrogen than is available from naphtha reforming. Flexibility is greatly improved over the simple conventional refinery. Nonetheless some products are not eliminated, for example, the heavy fuel of marginal quality, and the conversion product qualities may not be adequate, even after severe treatment, to meet certain specifications such as the gasoline octane number, diesel cetane number, and allowable levels of certain components. 

Product characterization aims at defining their end-use properties by means of conventional standard measurements related as well as possible — and in any case, being the object of a large consensus— to end-use properties. We cite for example that octane numbers are supposed to represent the resistance of gasoline to knocking in ignition engines. 

Let us cite the main centre in Ukraine, where investigations and developments in the field of NDT are performed, and consider some of the main results of this work. 

Equation V-64 is that of a parabola, and electrocapillary curves are indeed approximately parabolic in shape. Because E ax tmd 7 max very nearly the same for certain electrolytes, such as sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate, it is generally assumed that specific adsorption effects are absent, and Emax is taken as a constant (-0.480 V) characteristic of the mercury-water interface. For most other electrolytes there is a shift in the maximum voltage, and is then taken to be Emax 0.480. Some values for the quantities are given in Table V-5 [113]. Much information of this type is due to Gouy [125], although additional results are to be found in most of the other references cited in this section. 

The uncertainties in choice of potential function and in how to approximate the surface distortion contribution combine to make the calculated surface energies of ionic crystals rather uncertain. Some results are given in Table VII-2, but comparison between the various references cited will yield major discrepancies. Experimental verification is difficult (see Section VII-5). Qualitatively, one expects the surface energy of a solid to be distinctly higher than the surface tension of the liquid and, for example, the value of 212 ergs/cm for (100)... 

One molecular solid to which a great deal of attention has been given is ice. A review by Fletcher [74] cites calculated surface tension values of 100-120 ergs/cm (see Ref. 75) as compared to an experimental measurement of 109 ergs/cm [76]. There is much evidence that a liquidlike layer develops at the ice-vapor interface, beginning around -35°C and thickening with increasing temperature [45, 74, 77, 78]. 

Bowden and Tabor [4] cite support for the general idea that film molecules are forced to a horizontal configuration in load-bearing regions and the general idea was proposed by Wilson in 1955 [63]. 

Rather sophisticated techniques have developed for both microscopies, too involved to discuss here. E)etails may be found in monographs such as Ref. 25, and references cited in Section VlII-2. 

The apparent activation energy is then less than the actual one for the surface reaction per se by the heat of adsorption. Most of the algebraic forms cited are complicated by having a composite denominator, itself temperature dependent, which must be allowed for in obtaining k from the experimental data. However, Eq. XVIII-47 would apply directly to the low-pressure limiting form of Eq. XVIII-38. Another limiting form of interest results if one product dominates the adsorption so that the rate law becomes... 

Bom [2] cites as an example of a simple expression for which no integrating factor exists... 

Wliat themiodynamic experiments can be cited to support such an assumption There are several ... 

The tliree conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy play a central role in the hydrodynamic description. For a one-component system, these are the only hydrodynamic variables. The mass density has an interesting feature in the associated continuity equation the mass current (flux) is the momentum density and thus itself is conserved, in the absence of external forces. The mass density p(r,0 satisfies a continuity equation which can be expressed in the fonn (see, for example, the book on fluid mechanics by Landau and Lifshitz, cited in the Furtlier Reading)... 

These equations lead to fomis for the thermal rate constants that are perfectly similar to transition state theory, although the computations of the partition functions are different in detail. As described in figrne A3.4.7 various levels of the theory can be derived by successive approximations in this general state-selected fomr of the transition state theory in the framework of the statistical adiabatic chaimel model. We refer to the literature cited in the diagram for details. 

Although the field of gas-phase kinetics remains hill of challenges it has reached a certain degree of maturity. Many of the fiindamental concepts of kinetics, in general take a particularly clear and rigorous fonn in gas-phase kinetics. The relation between fiindamental quantum dynamical theory, empirical kinetic treatments, and experimental measurements, for example of combustion processes [72], is most clearly established in gas-phase kmetics. It is the aim of this article to review some of these most basic aspects. Details can be found in the sections on applications as well as in the literature cited. 

In this chapter we shall first outline the basic concepts of the various mechanisms for energy redistribution, followed by a very brief overview of collisional intennoleciilar energy transfer in chemical reaction systems. The main part of this chapter deals with true intramolecular energy transfer in polyatomic molecules, which is a topic of particular current importance. Stress is placed on basic ideas and concepts. It is not the aim of this chapter to review in detail the vast literature on this topic we refer to some of the key reviews and books [U, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32] and the literature cited therein. These cover a variety of aspects of tire topic and fiirther, more detailed references will be given tliroiighoiit this review. We should mention here the energy transfer processes, which are of fiindamental importance but are beyond the scope of this review, such as electronic energy transfer by mechanisms of the Forster type [33, 34] and related processes. 

We start from a model in which collision cross sections or rate constants for energy transfer are compared with a reference quantity such as average Leimard-Jones collision cross sections or the usually cited Leimard-Jones collision frequencies [54]... 

The often-cited Amontons law [101. 102] describes friction in tenns of a friction coefiBcient, which is, a priori, a material constant, independent of contact area or dynamic parameters, such as sliding velocity, temperature or load. We know today that all of these parameters can have a significant influence on the magnitude of the measured friction force, especially in thin-film and boundary-lubricated systems. 

Israelaohvili J N 1991 Intermolecular and Surface Forces (London Aoademio) The most often cited reference about surface forces and SFA. Hutohings I M 1992 Friction and Wear of Engineering Materials (London Arnold) A good introduction to tribology. 

This brief essay couid neither deai with aii fieids of high-pressure science nor any one fieid in depth. The iiterature of articies, reviews, books, and conference proceedings for this fieid is extensive and oniy a few are cited in the references. Here, we suggest a few books and conference proceedings for the reader interested in expioring the fieid further. This somewhat arbitrary seiection is the author s it emphasizes recent books and a few ciassic works. 

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