Bacillus anthracis vaccines

A. P. Pomerantsev, et al., Expression of cereolysine AB genes in Bacillus anthracis vaccine strain ensures protection against experimental infection, Vaccine, 15, 1997, 1846-50. 

Studies on S-layers present on the cell envelopes of a great variety of pathogenic organisms [100] revealed that these crystalhne arrays can represent important virulence factors. Most detailed studies have been performed on the fish pathogenic bacteria Aeromonas salmonicida and Aeromonas hydrophila [102] and the human pathogen Campylobacter fetus uh p. fetus [103] and Bacillus anthracis [104]. For example, whole-cell preparations or partially purified cell products are currently used as attenuated vaccines against various fish pathogens [102,105]. 

Schneerson R, Kubler-Kielb J, Liu TY et al (2003) Poly(y-D-glutamic acid) protein conjugates induce IgG antibodies in mice to the capsule of Bacillus anthracis a potential addition to the anthrax vaccine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 8945-8950... 

The anthrax bioterrorist attacks that followed the events of September 11th 2001 resulted in a renewed interest BadUus anthracis, the causative agent of this disease. Research has focused on the development of better vaccines than the one currently available. It has been estimated that the aerosolized release of 100 kg of anthrax spores upwind of Washington DC would cause mortalities of 130,000-3,000,000 [63]. Nonetheless, wild-type Bacillus anthracis is susceptible to conventional antibiotics, including penicillin, oxyfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. The problem lies not with the bacterial infection itself, but with three proteins released by the bacteria - protective antigen (PA, 83 kDa), lethal factor (LF, 90 kDa) and edema factor (EF, 89 kDa) -known as anthrax toxins [63]. 

Anthrax vaccines Bacillus anthracis-duenwedu antigens found in a sterile filtrate of cultures of this microorganism Active immunization against anthrax... 

Anthrax, a disease caused by infection by Bacillus anthracis via spores, can be transmitted to humans or animals ruminants such as sheep, goats, cattle, and deer are most susceptible. The handling of infected animals or animal products may also lead to human infection. Recently, anthrax has been considered to be a potential candidate for bioterrorism activity. The spores are extremely hardy and may come into contact with humans through a cut or abrasion, through consumption of infected meat, or by inhalation. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) lists anthrax as a category A disease, and the only vaccine that currently exists has a number of drawbacks and health risks. 

Watson, J., Koya, V, Leppia, S.H., and Daniell, H. (2004). Expression of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen in transgenic chloroplasts of tobacco, a non-food/feed crop. Vaccine 22 4374-4384. 

BaiUie, L., The development of new vaccines against Bacillus anthracis. J Appl Microbiol, 2001. 91(4) 609-13. 

Anthrax A (Bacillus anthracis) Animals— herbivores 1-5 days No Standard (invasive procedures should be avoided) Inhalation— fever, dry cough,resp distress, meningitis cutaneous-skin ulcer Death may occur about 24-36 h post exposure Ciprofloxacin, doxycycline A vaccine is available... 

The use of Cipro to treat anthrax infection emanated from research carried out in 1990 at Fort Detrick, Maryland (see later). The army was concerned that Saddam Hussein could introduce germ warfare in the Gulf War in the form of anthrax. Sixty monkeys were infected with a strain of Bacillus anthracis by aerosol and were divided into six groups. One group received a vaccine alone another received the vaccine and antibiotics and three groups were treated for 30 days with one of three different classes of antibiotics—penicillin, doxycycline, or Cipro. A control group received saline injections. 

In a guinea pig/aerosol model, 6 x 10 spores of the vaccine anthrax strain STI were detected in the lungs 1 h after infection from a dose of 2.43 x 10 spores. Bacillus anthracis was not detectable in the tracheobronchial lymph nodes until 2 days post-infection. On day 36 post-infection, lung levels were down to 10 spores and tracheobronchial lymph nodes were again negative. 

Aloni-Grinstein, R., Gat, O., Althoum, Z., Velan, B., Cohen, S., Shafferman, A. (2005). Oral spore vaccine based on live attenuated nontoxinogenic Bacillus anthracis expressing recombinant mutant protective antigen. Infect. Immun. 73 4043-53. 

Sirard, J.C., Fayolle, C., de Chastellier, C., Mock, M., Leclerc, C., Berche, P. (1997a). Intrac doplasmic delivery of listeriolysin O by a vaccinal strain of Bacillus anthracis induces CD8-mediated protection against Listeria monocytogenes. J. Immunol. 159 4435 3. 

Until recently, there has been little research into anthrax vaccines, other than that carried out for anti-bacteriological warfare purposes by the military. Currently, three human vaccines against Bacillus anthracis (produced in Russia, the UK, and the USA) are commercially available. The results of two field trials of two vaccines produced in Russia and the USA have been analysed (2). The US killed vaccine was 93% effective in preventing cases of anthrax, and the Russian live attenuated vaccine afforded 75% protection when given by scarification and 84% when a jet-gun was used. The rates of local reactions (erythema, induration, and edema) and systemic reactions (fever, malaise, arthralgia, rash, headache) after the US vaccine were 5.75 and 0.4% respectively, compared with 0.54% local reactions and no systemic reactions after placebo. Adverse effects data on the Russian vaccine were not presented. 

R. Adamo, R. Saksena, and P. Kovac, Studies towards a conjugate vaccine for anthrax Synthesis of the tetrasaccharide side chain of the Bacillus anthracis exosporium, Helv. Chim. Acta, 89 (2006) 1075-1089. 

D. B. Werz and P. H. Seeberger, Total synthesis of antigen Bacillus anthracis tetrasaccharide-creation of an anthrax vaccine candidate, Angew. Chem., Int.l Ed., 44 (2005) 6315-6318. 

Whether this epidemic, affecting both man and beast, was anthrax is speculation, but it may well have been. Anthrax is one of the oldest known diseases of animals its manifestations were recorded by Homer, Hippocrates, Galen, and Pliny. The microbe Bacillus anthracis can infect dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, mules, and swine. It is the first infectious disease against which a vaccine was developed, by Louis Pasteur in 1881. 

Cohen S, Mendelson I, Altboum Z, Kobiler D, Elhanany E, Bino T, Leitner M, Inbar I, Rosenberg H, Gozes Y, Barak R, Fisher M, Kronman C, Velan B, Shafferman A. Attenuated nontoxinogenic and nonencapsulated recombinant Bacillus anthracis spore vaccines protect against anthrax. Infect Immun 2000 68 4549-4558. 

Little SF, Knudson GB. Comparative efficacy of Bacillus anthracis live spore vaccine and protective antigen vaccine against anthrax in the guinea pig. Infect Immun. 1986 52 509-512. 

Ivins BE, Fellows PF, Pitt MLM, et al. Efficacy of a standard human anthrax vaccine against Bacillus anthracis aerosol challenge in rhesus monkeys. Salisbury Med Bull Suppl. 1996 87(suppl) 125-126. 

Because inhalational anthrax in humans is so rare, w e cannot be certain about the risk of reinfection therefore, CDC recommends that another course of antibiotic treatment be given promptly if a person is reexpused to Bacillus anthracis. In animal studies of inhalational anthrax, animals given anthrax vaccine and antibiotics after exposure did not develop anthrax when reexposed 4 months after the original exposures, while animals treated with antibiotics alone became ill when reexpo.sed. 

Herrmann, J.E., Wang, S., Zhang, C., Panchal, R.G., 2006. Passive immunotherapy of Bacillus anthracis pulmonary infection in mice with antisera produced by DNA immunization. Vaccine 24, 5872. 

The other major health care products produced with the help of industrial fermentation are bacterial vaccines, therapeutic proteins, steroids, and gene therapy vectors. There are two categories of bacterial vaccines living and inactivated vaccines. Living vaccines consist of weakened, also known as attenuated, bacteria. Examples of living vaccines include those for diseases such as anthrax, which is caused by Bacillus anthracis, and typhoid fever, which is caused by Salmonella typhi. Inactivated vaccines are composed... 

Pasteur s further research included investigating the diseases that plagued the French silk industry. He developed a means of vaccinating sheep against infection by Bacillus anthracis and a vaccine to protect chickens against cholera. Pasteur s most impressive achievement may have been the development of a treatment effective against the rabies virus for people bitten by rabid dogs or wolves. 

A Soviet-made, live attenuated (non-encapsulated) strain of anthrax, administered in 1943, is probably the first recorded anthrax vaccine made for humans. At about the same time, one of the first orders of business in the United States biological warfare program was also the development of anthrax vaccine. In one of the first efforts, 205 personnel were administered a vaccine made of killed Bacillus anthracis bacteria (the causative agent of anthrax) vaccine. After several months of study, however, it became clear that this vaccine showed little efficacy and was discontinued. 

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