Aerosols release

Computer sensitivity studies show that hole size strongly affects the fraction of fission products released from the containment. The failure location determines mitigation due to release into another building in which condensation and particulate removal occur. The quantity released depends on the time of containment fails relative to reactor vessel failure. If containment integrity is maintained for several hours after core melt, then natural and engineered mechanisms (e.g., deposition, condensation, and filtration) can significantly reduce the quantity and radioactivity of the aerosols released to the atmosphere. 

Maynard, A.D. et al. (2004) Exposure to carbon nanotube material aerosol release during the handling of unrefined single-walled carbon nanotube material. Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A, 67 (1), 87-107. 

The anthrax bioterrorist attacks that followed the events of September 11th 2001 resulted in a renewed interest BadUus anthracis, the causative agent of this disease. Research has focused on the development of better vaccines than the one currently available. It has been estimated that the aerosolized release of 100 kg of anthrax spores upwind of Washington DC would cause mortalities of 130,000-3,000,000 [63]. Nonetheless, wild-type Bacillus anthracis is susceptible to conventional antibiotics, including penicillin, oxyfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. The problem lies not with the bacterial infection itself, but with three proteins released by the bacteria - protective antigen (PA, 83 kDa), lethal factor (LF, 90 kDa) and edema factor (EF, 89 kDa) -known as anthrax toxins [63]. 

Infected individuals Unless the individual is reporting directly from the scene of an attack (e.g., "anthrax" letter, aerosol release, etc.) then decontamination is not necessary. Use standard protocols for individuals that may be infected with a communicable disease transmissible via an aerosol. 

Direct Exposure In the event that an individual is at the scene of a known or suspected attack (e.g., white-powder letter, aerosol release, etc.), have them wash their hands and face thoroughly with antimicrobial soap and water as soon as possible. If antimicrobial soap is not available, use any available soap or shampoo. They should also blow their nose to remove any agent particles that may have been captured by nasal mucous. Remove all clothing and seal in a plastic bag. To avoid further exposure of the head, neck, and face to the agent, cut off potentially contaminated clothing that must be pulled over the head. Shower using copious amounts of antimicrobial soap (if available) and water. Ensure that the hair has been washed and rinsed to remove potentially trapped agent. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) does not recommend that individuals use bleach or other disinfectants on their skin. 

Phase changes are typically associated with the evaporation of any suspended liquid phase in an aerosol release. As air is mixed with an aerosol, equilibrium constraints cause additional evaporation of the liquid phase which reduces the temperature of the liquid phase (and the vapor phase if thermal equilibrium is maintained). 

Scientists believe that if smallpox virus is released as an aerosol and not exposed to UV light, it may persist for as long as 24 hours or somewhat longer under favorable conditions. However, by the time patients become ill, which takes about 10 days to 12 days after infection with the virus, and it has been determined that an aerosol release of smallpox virus had occurred, there would be no viable smallpox virus left in the environment to detect. Trying to detect the virus everywhere at all times without any indications of any illness in people would not be feasible. 

According to the vendor, the ISOCELL technology can provide in a frustum-shaped block of preselected size the complete isolation and removal of radioactive materials from in situ site conditions. The technology uses lifting and/or glazing to keep wastes contained inside the frozen blocks and to reduce dust and aerosol releases during lifting and mobilization processes. 

Topical exposure to anthrax spores can result in cutaneous anthrax, especially in areas with previous cuts or abrasions. Uncovered areas, such as the arms, hands, face, and neck are the most likely sites for cutaneous anthrax. Unlike inhalational anthrax, experience does not reflect a prolonged latency period, and in Sverdlovsk, no cutaneous cases occurred more than 12 days after the aerosol release (4,5). 

After an aerosol release of smallpox, public health authorities will make vaccine supplies available to affected communities. Postexposure vaccination is effective in preventing infection or lowering mortality up to 4 days after exposure. Physicians should give the vaccine to suspected cases to ensure that a mistaken diagnosis does not place patients at risk for smallpox. An emergency vaccination program should also include (26) ... 

In spite of potential technical difficulties, terrorists are most likely to use an aerosolized form of botulinum toxin to inflict the greatest number of casualties most efficiently. A successful point source aerosol release could incapacitate or kill 10% of people within 0.5 km downwind of the release (36). Terrorists could also use food as a vehicle for the toxin. Although food contamination would cause fewer casualties compared to an aerosol release, it would be more difficult to distinguish a food-borne attack from naturally occurring food-borne botulism. Contamination of public water supplies is unlikely for three reasons ... 

In the event of a covert food-borne release of botnlinnm toxin, the epidemiologic analysis may reveal identify the suspect food, and pnblic health anthorities will most likely obtain the appropriate food specimens, if still available. Snspected foods reqnire refrigeration before retrieval. Likewise, pnblic health anthorities will be responsible for obtaining the appropriate environmental swabs in the event of a food-borne or aerosol release of botnlinnm toxin. 

Tularemia pneumonia can result from an inhalation exposure or from hematogenous spread of the infection. An aerosol release could be expected to result in large numbers of patients experiencing systemic symptoms accompanied by signs and symptoms associated with one or more of the following conditions pharyngitis, bronchiolitis, pleuropneumonitis and hilar lymphadenitis (43). However, many people with inhalational exposure will likely develop a clinical presentation of systemic symptoms without prominent signs or symptoms of respiratory disease. 

Generation of liquid aerosols by electrospraying has been a well-studied technique [28,29]. Electrostatic charges are used to decrease the surface tension of a liquid to facilitate or cause breakup of the surface. The placement of charge on the surface in practice necessitates a sufficiently conductive liquid for electric current flow to replenish charge carried away by the aerosol released. In an assist mode, a potential difference is placed on the liquid to decrease the droplet size... 

The dominant transport mechanism for both aerosol and gaseous agents in the atmosphere is advection associated with the bulk motion of the atmosphere. Since airflows in the planetary boundary layer exhibit signihcant turbulence under most conditions (though turbulence may be suppressed under conditions of temperature inversion), this will cause aerosol releases to disperse into a plume or puff that expands... 

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