Anthrax spores

In 1880, the bacteriologist Robert Koch had noted that anthrax spores were more rapidly killed by the same concentrahons of phenol if the temperature was elevated. A former pharmacopoeial sterilizahon process heating with a bactericide used an elevated temperature, 80-100°C, maintained for 30 minutes, to ensure that quite low concentrations of bactericides would sterilize parenteral injections and eye-drops. 

Makino, S. I. Cheun, H. I. Application of the real-time PCR for the detection of airborne microbial pathogens in reference to the anthrax spores. J. Microbiol. Meth. 2003,53,141-147. 

Events involving deliberate or accidental distribution of bacterial pathogens into our everyday environment have clearly defined the need for a sensitive, specific, and rapid method of bacterial detection. Bioterrorism was first introduced in the United States in 1984 with the Salmonella typhimurium attack in The Dalles, Oregon, by a cult group attempting to affect a local election.1 As a result of this act 751 people contracted salmonellosis, which totally overwhelmed the hospitals and medical clinics with patients. Later our society became keenly aware of the potential of bioterrorism during the last four months of 2001 when Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) spores were sent through the US mail in an envelope to several locations. These events had... 

Bruno J.G., Kiel J.L., In vitro selection of DNA aptamers to anthrax spores with electrochemiluminescence detection, Biosens. Bioelectron. 1999 14 457-464. 

The anthrax bioterrorist attacks that followed the events of September 11th 2001 resulted in a renewed interest BadUus anthracis, the causative agent of this disease. Research has focused on the development of better vaccines than the one currently available. It has been estimated that the aerosolized release of 100 kg of anthrax spores upwind of Washington DC would cause mortalities of 130,000-3,000,000 [63]. Nonetheless, wild-type Bacillus anthracis is susceptible to conventional antibiotics, including penicillin, oxyfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. The problem lies not with the bacterial infection itself, but with three proteins released by the bacteria - protective antigen (PA, 83 kDa), lethal factor (LF, 90 kDa) and edema factor (EF, 89 kDa) -known as anthrax toxins [63]. 

Virulent bacteria Food and environmental samples 1000 cells mL-1 (Escherichia coll 0157, Salmonella, Bacillus anthrax spores)... 

April of2002, a researcher at U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) tested positive for exposure to anthrax spores, which were also released in small quantities into an adjacent hallway and office. 

In Oakland, California, several lab workers were suspected of exposure to anthrax when a Maryland lab supplier mistakenly sent live anthrax spores rather than dead microbe strains. 

Routes of Entry to the Body Inhalation, skin, and mouth. A biological warfare attack or a terrorist incident utilizing anthrax spores disseminated by aerosol would cause inhalation anthrax, a very rare form of this naturally occurring disease. Normal infection could occur through scratches or sores, wounds, eating insufficiently cooked infected meat, or by flies. All human populations are susceptible. The good news is that if you survive anthrax disease the first time, you would be immune to anthrax disease in the future. 

According to one spokesperson, Senator Leahy s letter, in potency and appearance, was a twin to Senator Daschle s letter. It contained twenty-three thousand anthrax spores, a number of spores roughly equal to two lethal doses of inhalation anthrax (i.e., the infec-... 

Inhalation) Anthrax Spores in aerosols No Moderate 1-6 days 3-5 days High Spores are highly stable Yes Little effect Experi- mental... 

In the fall of 2001, letters containing a sophisticated and lethal form of powdered anthrax were sent to news media outlets and two democratic senators (the letters to the two senators were more highly refined and therefore more deadly). Of the eleven victims of inhalational anthrax, six survived. Eleven people also came down with cutaneous anthrax. Thousands of potentially exposed individuals were prescribed the antibiotic Cipro. The perpetrator is still unknown. This attack demonstrated that an individual could create highly refined anthrax spores, which, if disseminated properly, could infect hundreds, thousands or more. What is less clear is whether the perpetrator or any other terrorist could produce larger amounts (kgs) of anthrax and efficiently disseminate the spores over a wide area. According to the nuclear threat initiative, Producing... 

Anthrax Attacks — Soon after September 11, 2001, terrorists began sending envelopes containing anthrax spores through the U.S. mail system. The envelopes were mailed to NBC and CBS television stations, The New York Post, Senator Tom Daschle s office, the State Department, and other locations. As of November 21, 2001, 37 individuals had been exposed to anthrax 13 were infected and 5 eventually died. The FBI is still trying to determine who was responsible for these attacks. 

Delighted by the certainty that I had anthrax, I presented my theory to the Post Infirmary doctor. I even brought along the sandals, hoping he would have them tested for the presence of anthrax spores. He seemed to accept my reasoning and prescribed a course of penicillin. After I had taken it for ten days, there seemed to be no improvement - in fact, my itchy blister was getting worse. 

Chlorine dioxide is a yellow to reddish-yellow gas that can decompose rapidly in air. Because it is a hazardous gas, chlorine dioxide is always made at the place where it is used. Chlorine dioxide is used as a bleach at pulp mills, which make paper and paper products, and in public water treatment facilities, to make water safe to drink. In 2001, chlorine dioxide was used to decontaminate a number of public buildings following the release of anthrax spores in the United States. Chlorine dioxide is soluble in water and will rapidly react with other compounds. When it reacts in water, chlorine dioxide will form chlorite ion, which is also a very reactive compound. 

Industrial processes, such as mUling and mining, construction work, and the burning of wood or fossil fuel, generate particulates that can be directly toxic or can serve as vectors for the transfer of bound material, such as sulfuric acid, metals, and hydrocarbons, into the lungs. Natural products such as pollen, anthrax spores, and animal dander can elicit toxic reactions on inhalation or skin contact. The inhalation of asbestos, silica, or coal dust can cause pneumoconiosis, which may develop into serious lung disease. The size of the particle, ventilatory rate, and depth of breathing will determine the extent of pulmonary deposition. 

Anthrax Spores Biochemical Properties DNA sequence Whole organism Specific toxin plasmids Proteins sequence and structure Exosporium Spore internal Toxins... 

The fluoroquinolone subclass of antibiotics is inspired by nalidixic acid (A.35), an older antibiotic commonly used for urinary tract infections (Figure A.10). Depending on the type of infection, fluoroquinolones inhibit DNA gyrase and/or topoisomerase IV. Both enzymes are vital for DNA replication and bacterial reproduction. Both ciprofloxacin (Cipro, A.36) and levofloxacin (Levaquin, A.37) are examples of fluoroquinolone antibiotics. Ciprofloxacin received national attention in the United States in 2001. Ciprofloxacin was used to treat many anthrax-infected patients after letters containing anthrax spores were sent through the U.S. postal service. 

Figure 6.2 The Ca2+-mediated aggregation of anthrax spores with sugar functionalized SWNTs (a) a schematic illustration (b) SEM image (scale bar = 500 nm) and (c) optical image (scale bar = 20 p.m).u (Reprinted with permission from H. Wang et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006, 128, 13364—13365.

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