Vaccines/serums/toxoids

Serum antibody responses of B lymphocytes can be assessed either by vaccination with a potent primary antigen such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), or by boosting with a recall antigen such as tetanus toxoid. This results in either a primary or secondary antibody response in normal individuals, which is often reduced or absent in AIDS patients. 

In rabbits with undemutrition due to a shortage of calories there was a depressed agglutinin production against typhoid vaccine (C3, R4). A similar incapacity to produce antibodies to typhoid vaccine was reported in children with severe protein malnutrition (Bll). During treatment of 5 children, mean age 24 months, with chronic primary malnutrition, it was observed that their response to a single standard dose of 100 imits of purified diphtheroid toxoid was small and slow. Furthermore there was no correlation between specific antibody response and serum protein levels (02). 

The latter approach has been followed in our laboratory. For instance, in studies related to the synthesis of potent multivalent sialoside inhibitors of influenza virus hemagglutinin [34], it became of interest to evaluate the immunogenicity of neoglycoproteins containing sialosides as sole immunodominant hapten. To this end, acetochloroneuraminic acid (1) was transformed into allyl glycoside 2 (Scheme 1) which upon reductive ozonolysis afforded aldehyde 3 in excellent overall yields [35], Reductive amination of 3 to bovine serum albumin (BSA) and tetanus toxoid provided immunogenic vaccines from which specific rabbit IgG anti-sialic acid antibodies were obtained [36]. In order... 

In addition to anthrax vaccine, the organization was a licensed producer of diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and pertusis vaccines, adsorbed immune serum globulin (human) pertusis vaccine adsorbed rabies vaccine adsorbed and tetanus toxoid, adsorbed. See Plotkin and Orenstein (1999), Appendix2, pp. 1190-1193. 

Tetanus toxoid (the vaccine for tetanus) encapsulated in polyester microspheres was produced for single-injection immunization. The entrapment efficiency of the protein vaccine was significantly improved by coencapsulation with excipients such as trehalose and y-hydroxypropyl cyclodextrin. However, these excipients did not impart stabilizing effect on tetanus toxoid. In contrast, bovine serum albumin was foimd to be the most prominent stabilizer for protein in the body after administration by injection. 

In children aged 15-16 years receiving routine reinforcement tetanus immunization, adsorbed vaccine caused more intense and more frequent local reactions than did plain tetanus toxoid, and a higher incidence of pjrexia. The incidence of swelling and erythema at the inoculation site increased with serum antitoxin titre at the time of administration, whereas pain and tenderness were related to the presence of the aluminium hydroxide adjuvant (17). Based on similar experiences it has been widely recommended that plain and not adsorbed tetanus toxoid should be used when reinforcement of immunity to tetanus alone is desired. 

A pentavalent botulinum toxoid (botulinum toxin in different antigenic types) has been used for more than 30 years in some countries to prevent the disease in laboratory workers and to protect troops against attack. Pre-exposure immunization for the general population is neither feasible nor desirable the vaccine is ineffective for postexposure prophylaxis. Treatment of botulism consists of passive immunization and supportive care. Most licensed antitoxins contain antibodies against the most common toxin types A, B, and E. About 9% of recipients of equine antitoxin developed urticaria, serum sickness, or other hypersensitivity reactions. In 2% of recipients anaphylaxis occurred within 10 minutes of antitoxin... 

Clostridial neurotoxins are very toxic. However they are ineffective in individuals immunized with the corresponding toxoids. In most countries children are vaccinated with tetanus toxoid and this is sufficient to provide full protection against tetanus for decades. A booster injection of tetanus toxoid (available from health authorities) before starting research with TeTx is advisable. On the other hand, the vaccine for BoNT/A, B, C, D and E is not commercially available, but can be obtained from the Center for Disease Control (CDC, Atlanta, GA). Due to the rather low efficacy of the BoNTs vaccine, a protective serum anti-BoNT titre is generally, but not always, achieved. Human anti-TeTx antibodies and horse anti-BoNT antibodies are also available from health authorities, and their injection immediately after accidental penetration of the toxin into the circulatory system is sufficient to prevent the disease. 

The only positive findings have been severe serum IgG deficiency and subnormal levels of antibodies to tetanus toxoid and diphtheria toxoid following adequate challenge. Serum and salivary IgA and the response to oral poliomyelitis vaccine (presumably mainly in the IgA class) have usually been normal, as have serum IgM and isohemagglutinins. Neutro-phile function, lymphocyte transformation, and the responses to vaccinia and childhood virus infections were all normal. This seems a milder disease than Bruton s and does well on y-globulin prophylaxis or even only with prompt treatment of infections. 

Although the total B-cell population has been low due to the lymphopenia the 7oPBM s recognised as B cells remains normal, as have serum and secretory immunoglobulins. Immunoelectrophoresis has shown no monoclonal band. Sero-conversion to respiratory syncytial virus has been noted (litre 1/10,1/40,1/10 at 6,12, and 16 months respectively. The patient was immunised with diptheria and tetanus toxoid plus inactivated polio vaccine at 4,6 and 12 months. No polio antibodies were detected but following tetanus immunisation 1-2 units/ml tetanus antitoxin were produced. There has been no response to intradermal Candida antigen at 6,12, and 15 months of age. 

Other derivatives and chitosan salts, such as chitosan lactate, chitosan aspartate, chitosan glutamate, and chitosan hydrochloride, were also shown to be good candidates for nasal sustained release of, for example, the antibiotic vancomycin hydrochloride [87]. In addition, chitosan microparticles with diphtheria toxoid (DT) for nasal administration were produced. These microparticles administration resulted in a protective systemic and local immune response against DT with enhanced IgG production. The induction of serum IgG responses were similar to secretory IgA levels, and are superior to parenteral administration of the vaccine [88]. 

The pharmaceuticals segment (SIC 283) consists of some 1,225 corporations whose primary business is the development, manufacturing, and marketing of medicinal chemicals and botanicals in vitro and other substances to diagnose or monitor the state of human or veterinary health bacterial and virus vaccines, toxoids, serums, plasmas, and other biological products for human and veterinary health and vitamins and other pharmaceutical preparations for both human and veterinary use,... 

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