Types of consequences

Information on the immediate conseqnences to the victim of an accident is nsnally readily available and is well snited for classification. There are standard schemes for the classification of the nature of the injnry and part of body affected. Table 6.2 shows an example of a common injury classification scheme (ILO, 1998 Enrostat, 1998). 

Statistics on accident distribntions by type of injnry and part of body affected find many practical uses. 

Contusions, bruises Concussions and internal injuries Open wounds, including cuts, lacerations, abrasions, severed tendons, nerves and blood vessels Amputations Open fractures Closed fractures Dislocations 

Torso and organs, including rib cage, chest area, pelvic and torso Upper extremities, including shoulder, arm, hand, fingers and wrist 

Lower extremities, including hip, leg, ankle, foot and toes Other part of body Whole body and multiple sites 

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In many cases, formal tools for decision making can be useful, particularly if the hazards vary greatly in type of consequence or impact. Many of these tools introduce additional rigor, consistency, and logic into the decision process. Some available methods include ... 

At least three types of consequences are possible if a human error occurs in a task sequence ... 

One example of a particularly hazardous type of consequence in the second category is where, because of misdiagnosis, the operator performs some alternative task other than that required by the system. For example, a rise of pressure in a reactor may be interpreted as being the result of a blockage in an output line, which would lead to attempts to clear the line. If, instead, it... 

Types of consequences can vary from person to person. 

To a certain extent the plants may take up pollution elements directly from the air. The harmful fluorine components from the aluminum factories may to a great extent appear as a cover on the green plants. This type of consequence is only present as long as the pollution persists, contrary to effects from elements added to the soil. 

One of the important aspects of schedule-control-led behavior that deserves note is the remarkable similarity of behavior patterns generated by these schedules across a wide variety of species, even when type of response and type of consequence stimuli differ - a phenomenon of obvious importance for the issue of cross-species extrapolation because it shows the similarity and contiguity of such behavioral process across species. 

Consequence analyses for emergency response address specific issues resulting from an incident. This type of consequence analysis includes what-if scenarios (e.g., what if a railcar experiences a boiling... 

Ships at sea. These ships make very difficult and thus unlikely targets for attack with biological or chemical weapons, although it is important for the Navy to address potential contingencies as a result of other indirect means. The Navy has some tactics, techniques, and procedures (TIPs) for such contingencies, but those reviewed by the committee appear to be outdated, inconsistent, and/or incomplete with respect to the types of consequences that might be expected from an attack of this kind. 

Elevated production of Vg in males or immature fish may be associated with two different types of consequences for an individual decreased survival or impaired reproduction. First, extremely high levels of Vg in the circulation of males (tens of mg/ml) may cause renal failure and therefore pose a threat to survival, as has been demonstrated in summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus44. Second, high levels of Vg in males or juveniles may be produced in response to an EDC exposure that also alters sexual development and causes impaired fertility. In the first case, Vg overproduction causes an overt toxicity problem in the second, it serves as an indicator of a more subtle reproductive problem. The association between elevated plasma Vg and other... 

A general logical model has been presented for quantifying the probabdily of contact with moving parts of machines and the various types of consequences following the contact. The model has been used for risk reducing measures prioritization, through the calculation of two risk importance measures the risk decrease and the risk increase. The calculations were made for the three levels of the consequences risk. 

As it may be seen in Fig. 1, disturbance consequences compose network system, where connections of different type of consequences are available. It means, that one type of consequences makes other type consequences, for example, some economical consequences are reason of technical consequences, etc. Any path in network system consists of different type of consequences with particular severity level. This path is treated as a separate scenario. To simulate disturbance scenarios, states of network system must be filled with probabilities. Transition probabilities from one system state to other are needed (calculation of such probabilities is explained in Chapter 4). 

Then the quality consequences of a single failure and its bad propaganda in the relationship with the customer are classified in four possible types of consequences ... 

Figure 1 presents the stage-based model combining predictive modeling and event tree analysis techniques proposed in Domenech et al. 2008. The model has been adapted in this paper to represent the evolution of a hazard, i.e. CFU of LM, through the food chain described in section 2, which yield to one of the types of consequences possible in the agro-food sector as proposed in (Domenech et al. 2006) ... 

In addition, Table 5 shows the results found for the types of consequence LMi, LM2, LM3, LM4. 

Next we investigate the coupling and response behavior of the SCFs, and the various types of consequences, asking ... 

Figure 7. Result of risk assessment for three types of consequences. (1) risk of infrastructure failure with catastrophic consequences i.e., bridge damage and highway failure (2) the risk to operational serviceability (through temporary road closure) (3) risk to highway maintenance.

Risk assessment involves a combination of various risks based on different types of consequences. Information on the historic record of hazard events, frequency-magnitude and triggering mechanisms provides additional insight for the recognition of risk sites and risk level. Further parameter calibration and expert judgment are required for practical risk management. 

Inadvertent human intrusion and disruptive natural events can result in the same type of consequences. Thus, the general quantitative framework developed for safety assessment involving naturally occurring events and processes is also appropriate for the analysis of human intrusion scenarios. Extensive human judgement is required for the development and modelling of these scenarios (cf. chapter 2). 

Risk acceptance criteria are very important to start the system. It also sets the scope and boundary to a great extent. The acceptance criteria are decided based on the tequitements from the company, authorities, and customers. Acceptance criteria should be established for all types of consequences as safety, environmental, property, and othet economical factors. 

These advantages are counterbalanced by a number of disadvantages. Software implementation tends to be more complex and therefore more prone to design errors than implementation of purely hard-wired systems. Moreover, software implementations are discrete logic models of the real world. This has two types of consequences. Software is more sensitive (i.e. less tolerant) to small errors. It is also more difficult to test, because interpolation and extrapolation are much more difficult to apply to computer based systems than to traditional analog systems, and ultimately are not entirely valid. 

As mentioned, consequences can either increase or decrease the behaviors they follow. The two types of consequences are generally familiar Reinforcement increases behavior while punishment decreases behavior (see Fig. 21.5). In addition, behavior may be followed by a neutral event that neither strengthens nor weakens the behavior. As a mle, safety improvement efforts need to add consequences that support safe behavior on the job. The consequences occurring in the natural work environment simply do not maintain the levels of safety that we... 

Figure 21.5. Primary types of consequences and their impact on behavior.

This chapter will explain the fallacy in Kohn s argument and show ways to maximize the impact of an exfrinsic reward process. Again, the research-supported principle is that activators direct behavior and consequences motivate behavior, but tiie type of consequence cerfainly influences the amoxmt of motivation, as this chapter will explain. 

The intrinsic and extrinsic consequences discussed so far are external to the individual. In other words, they can be observed by another person. Behavioral scientists focus on these types of consequences to develop and evaluate motivational interventions because they can be objective and scientific when dealing with external, observable aspects of people. 

Figure 11.6 summarizes the different types of consequences. Relative to a task or job assignment, consequences can be natural (intrinsic) or extra (extrinsic). Natural consequences, produced by the target behavior, are usually immediate and certain. In contrast, extra consequences are added to the situation and are often delayed and may be uncertain. Extra consequences are necessary when the natural consequences are insufficient to motivate the desired behavior, as is often the case with safety-related achvities (Geller, 1996 Sulzer-Azaroff, 1992). 

Figure 11.6 classifies various activities according to the type of consequence relative to the task (natural vs. extra) and the task performer (internal vs. external). While these activities illustrate particular types of consequences available to motivate performance, the categorizations are neither mutually exclusive nor inclusive. Even the most straightforward task classifications, for example, can overlap with other categories, according to perceptions of the performer. 

Figure 11.6 Behavior is motivated by four different types of consequences.

As we have discussed, some activities or behaviors are not readily motivated by certain types of consequences, thus requiring extra support. Figure 11.6 can be used to identify these tasks and guide approaches for consequence intervention. Because safe behavior competes with at-risk behavior that is supported by external and natural consequences, it is usually necessary to support safe behavior with extra consequences. This leads us now to a discussion of two very popular safety topics rewards and penalties (actually referred to as "discipline" in occupational settings). 

The first 17 approaches are activators, occurring before the target behavior is performed. They attempt to persuade or direct people, can be classified as passive or active, and target individuals or groups. The three basic types of consequence approaches— reward, penalty, and feedback—can be given to an individual or to a group. Therefore, Figure 12.1 defines six different consequence procedures. 

Principle 22 Behavior is motivated by eight types of consequences positive vs. negative, natural vs. extra, and internal vs. external. 

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