Reward process

Smith, J.E., and Lane, J.D. Brain neurotransmitter turnover correlated with morphine self-administration. In Smith, J.E., and Lane, J.D., eds. The Neurobiology of Opiate Reward Processes. Amsterdam Elsevier, 1983. pp. 361402. 

Each neuron has specific synthetic machinery that enables it to both synthesize and eliminate a specific neurotransmitter. For example, neurons of the sympathetic nervous system employ norepinephrine and epinephrine as their transmitters. Other neurons, particularly in the central nervous system, employ dopamine as their transmitter. Dopamine is a particularly important transmitter for a variety of neuronal functions. Its loss is associated with Parkinson disease, and it is a critical agent in the mediation of pleasure and reward processes. Dopamine, due to its association with pleasurable sensations, is widely implicated in the actions of a number of drugs of abuse, including cocaine, opiates, and methamphetamines. 

Some probable complexities in the reward process are not diagramed. These include the reward for appetite itself and the reduction in alternative reward, which may be caused by some appetites themselves (for example, the pangs that an appetite for food commits you to if you do not eat). 

Noble, E.P. Addiction and its reward process through polymorphisms of the D2 dopamine receptor gene a review. Eur. Psychiatry 2000, 15, 79-89. 

These alterations in the development of opioidergic neurotransmission are likely to produce important long-lasting funchonal changes in these neurons in the adult brain (Kumar et al. 1990 Vela et al. 1998 Corchero et al. 1998). Indeed, it has been found that adult animals that had been perinatally exposed to cannabinoids exhibit alterations in neuroendocrine control (Kumar et al. 1990), pain sensitivity (Vela et al. 1995), and reward processes (Vela et al. 1998 Gonzdlez et al. 2003). Kumar et al. (1990) reported an increase in both Met-enkephalin and -endorphin immunoreactivity in the hypothalamus of adult rats perinatally exposed to cannabinoids. This effect could be related to changes in the synthesis and/or release of several anterior pituitary hormones (Dalterio 1986 Murphy et al. 1990, 1995). 

Aromatic sulfonyl chlorides can be converted into thiophenols by many types of reducing agent, but most simply by zinc dust in hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, yields being mostly very good.522 Preparatively the most rewarding process is their reduction in boiling glacial acetic acid by red phosphorus in the presence of catalytic amounts of iodine.523... 

Serotonin plays a role in the modulation of social behavior and in reward processing. Deficiency of tryptophan, the serotonin precursor, leads to reduction in serotonin production, and brings about reductions in the level of cooperation shown by participants in an experimental game-playing experiment. Serotonin also plays a role in socially... 

The possible roles of 5-HT4-RS in emotional and rewarding processes are only suggested by their presence in limbic structures such as septum, nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and frontal cortex in human (Table 4, Figure 5) [55, 56]. One has to take in account that steroid release elevates mood and consequently putative behavioural modifications induced by 5-HT4-R agonists could be complicated by these effects [98, 99, 137]. 

Schweitzer, P. J., Puterman, M. L., tmd Kindle, K. W. (1985), Iterative Aggregation-Disaggregation Procedures for Discounted Semi-Markov Reward Processes, Operations Research, Vol. 33, pp. 589-605. 

Second, commonly used analytical techniques for reliability evaluation are applied probabihty theory, renewal reward processes, Markov decision theory, and Fault Trees. Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages and the choice depends on the system being modeled. 

It takes empirical investigation, not common sense, to guide the development and implementation of an improvement intervention, whether repairing a bridge, constructing a building, or administrating an incentive/reward process. Contrary to popular belief, there is not too little common sense in business, there is too much (Daniels 1994, p. 10). 

In Chapter 11, I explain principles for establishing an incentive/reward process to motivate the kinds of safety processes that influence outcomes. For now, just recognize and appreciate the advantage of focusing on achieving process improvements over working to... 

This chapter will explain the fallacy in Kohn s argument and show ways to maximize the impact of an exfrinsic reward process. Again, the research-supported principle is that activators direct behavior and consequences motivate behavior, but tiie type of consequence cerfainly influences the amoxmt of motivation, as this chapter will explain. 

Interventions fluctuate widely in terms of cost, administrative effort, and participant involvement. Written activators like signs, memos, and newsletter messages are relatively effortless. Other activators like demonstrations, commitment techniques, and consensusbuilding discussions take considerable time and effort to design and deliver. As discussed in Chapter 11, implemenhng an incentive/reward process correctly requires continuous attention and periodic refinement from a team of intervention agents. 

The reward process. A number of observations were made about deficiencies in the reward process. The reward process focused on the short-term. It rewarded numbers not excellence, and it seemed to reward production over safety. 

Defining standards would be necessary to improving the reward process. Without standards, rewards would be seen as being offered on the basis of favoritism or even chance. 

The reward process does not appear to be a powerfiil driver here, in spite of being the first place that many organizations focus on attempting to create positive change. The logical implication to be drawn here is that changing the reward process in the absence of defining standards and a supervisory process to maintain them would be ineffective. The implication... 

Cuiturai misfits Communications and feedback Ciass structure Empowerment without authority Reward process Lack of training/education Chaos Time and priorities No standards Supervisory process undefined... 

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