The Computer Revolution

It has been the objective of this chapter to consider prevalent infrared photometric systems. The growing application of digital data-recording (DDR) techniques and computer processing of spectral data has produced results pertinent to subjects discussed in this chapter these techniques are certain to have a revolutionary effect on the field. 

With further development of DDR techniques, the instrument analog recorder, which has provided the basic record of spectral data, may be relegated to the role of furnishing the quick visual check for the data being recorded in digital form on punched or magnetic tape. 

Under these conditions, the DDR and the computer become an integral part of the instrument system. The computer can then take over some of the previously described functions of the instrument. For example, the computer can accept relatively noisy data and smooth the data by polynomial techniques as well as averaging of multiple runs. Furthermore, the computer will be able to correct routinely for systematic instrument errors, such as calibration, and for inherent factors, which will enable plotting of true band shapes for example. 

Alpert, Infrared Filter Grating Spectrophotometers—Design and Properties, Appl. Opt. 1 437 (1962). 

Ballard and J. S. Browder, Thermal Expansion and Other Physical Properties of the Newer Infrared-Transmitting Optical Materials, Appl Opt. 5 1873 (1966). 

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Gorniak-Kocikowska K. The computer revolution and the problem of global ethics. Sci Eng Ethics 1996 2.2 177-90. 

Research articles of interest to biochemists may appear in many types of research journals. Research libraries do not have the funds necessary to subscribe to every journal, nor do scientists have the time to survey every current journal copy for articles of interest. Two publications that help scientists to keep up with published articles are Chemical Titles (published every 2 weeks by the American Chemical Society) and the weekly Current Contents available in hard copy and computer disks (published by the Institute of Science Information). The Life Science edition of Current Contents is the most useful for biochemists. The computer revolution has reached into the chemical and biochemical literature, and most college and university libraries now subscribe to computer bibliographic search services. One such service is STN International, the scientific and technical information network. This on-line system allows direct access to some of the world s largest scientific databases. The STN databases of most value to life scientists include BIOSIS Pre-views/RN (produced by Bio Sciences Information Service covers original research reports, reviews, and U.S. patents in biology and biomedicine), CA (produced by Chemical Abstracts service covers research reports in all areas of chemistry), MEDLINE, and MEDLARS (produced by the U.S. National Library of Medicine and Index Medicus, respectively cover all areas of biomedicine). These networks provide on-line service and their databases can be accessed from personal computers in the office, laboratory, or library. Some... 

Computational chemistry is the study of chemistry using computer-based methods. Advances in both method development and applications to chemistry have been catalyzed by the computer revolution. They have also been stimulated by the ever-increasing realizations by chemists that computer simulation is becoming a full partner with experimental work in chemistry. 

Metalloids have some chemical and physical properties of metals and other properties of nonmetals. In the periodic table, the metalloids lie along the border between metals and nonmetals. Silicon (Si) is probably the most well-known metalloid. Some metalloids such as silicon, germanium (Ge), and arsenic (As) are semiconductors. A semiconductor is an element that does not conduct electricity as well as a metal, but does conduct slightly better than a nonmetal. The ability of a semiconductor to conduct an electrical current can be increased by adding a small amount of certain other elements. Silicon s semiconducting properties made the computer revolution possible. 

Chromatography data handling has benefited much from the computer revolution. A PC-based data station typically incorporates method storage, data archival, and report generation as well as full HPLC system control. For large laboratories, a centralized client-server network is becoming the standard system to ensure data security and compliance with regulations. Most network systems also allow the user to access data and to control the system remotely from the office and/or from home via a secured web connection. 

A number of new approaches to the problem of evaluating dispersion at micro-and mesoscopic scales have appeared during the past 10 to 15 yr. In particular, cellular automata modeling, advances in numerical simulations, improved physical micromodels, and the development and application of fractal and percolation concepts are significant steps. Most of these approaches are outgrowths of the computer revolution that took place over the same period. In fact, the development of more formal mathematical foundations for some of these approaches has followed their implementation on computers. 

The most efficient use of a transient recorder is, thus, as part of a signal averager. The most cost effective way is to do it yourself. Implementation of this plan assumes that the reader has a microcomputer—almost any will do, although we vastly prefer a machine that runs CP/M with the attendant enormous software availability—and a parallel port on the computer. The parallel port is used to control the transient recorder and act as the data input bus. To utilize the 10-Hz repetition rate of a modern Nd YAG laser, with every laser shot resulting in the storage of 1024 points/shot, the programming must be done in assembly code for speed. These facts require that the scientist becomes reasonably familiar with his/her microcomputer, but we feel that since a standard microcomputer now costs less than a plain vanilla oscilloscope it is time for all experimentalists to learn basic bit manipulation to fully exploit the computer revolution. 

Without convenient terminals and hard-copy devices, the situation for the chemist would be little better than the early days of chemical graphics, when even the largest of companies would only invest in a few expensive workstations and chemists would have to leave their laboratories to run a search. The real turning point that made the computer revolution happen was that systems were beginning to be hardware-independent and prices were continually decreasing in the competitive computer market. 

Research and practices were enhanced by enormous computational power due to the computer revolution. 

A new period of the interaction between chemistry and mathematics was shaped out by the computer revolution of the 1950-60s. Making a general statement about the difference between the classical and contemporary scientifie situations, one ean earefuUy say that... 

Before 1986, most scientists were skeptical that a room-temperature superconductor would ever be discovered, but in the twenty-first century such a discovery seems increasingly hkely. If such a superconductor could be efficiently and economically manufactured, then most industries of modern society would be affected, and a superconductor revolution would occur, similar to the computer revolution of the second half of the twentieth century. 

The term polymer nanocomposites pertains to the synthesis, characterization, and applications of polymeric materials with at least one or more dimensions less than 100 nm. Materials made with dimensions on the nanoscale offer unique and different properties compared to those in the macro scale developed with conventional technology. The field holds a lot of promise not only to the practitioner of the technology but also for inventors and scientists. The benefits to miniaturization, as realized in the microprocessor and microelectronics industry as a result or as part of the computer revolution, are being tapped into by the emergence of nanotechnology. 

Neumann, von J. The general and logical theory of automata. In Pylyshyn, Z.W. (ed.) Perspectives in the Computer Revolution, pp. 99-100. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1970)... 

Figure 6.10 illustrates the type of behavior that has come with the computer revolution. Low physical activity has become the way of work life for many of us. Often this inactivity spills over into home life. Survey research has shown that only one in five Americans exercises regularly and intensely enough to reduce the risk of stressor-induced heart disease (Dubbert, 1992). Figure 6.10 also depicts smoking behavior, considered to be the largest preventable cause of illness and premature death (before age 65) in the United States, and accounting for approximately 125,000 deaths each year (American Cancer Society, 1989). 

In order to describe atomistic level chemical phenomena one has to use quantum mechanics (Dahl 2001). This theory applied to molecules brought an explosion of quantum chemistry and, together with the computer revolution, has changed the way the chemistry is done in the twentieth century. Despite great successes of quantum chemistry, this approach is now limited... 

California s development sprang from their universities coupled with the entrepreneurial spirit and investor cash generated by the computer revolution of Silicon Valley 20 years in advance. The University of California claims that 1 in 3 California biotech firms was founded by UC scientists, and that 1 in 4 public biotech firms nationwide are located within 35 miles of a UC campus, albeit many of them are even closer to California s private universities like Stanford for equal reason. Clustered next to every major university is a private or non-profit research park, or planned research park, to allow rapid tech transfer and strong collaboration. Evety key region has a trade... 

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