Policy measures

The number of policy measures to enhance energy security is growing worldwide at an unprecedented pace. Actions resulting from the EU s energy policy, for instance, include (CEU, 2007) ... 

Policy measures to promote biofuels and GHG-emissions reduction in the transport sector... 

Many countries are enacting policy measures in support of biofuels and for green-house-gas emissions reduction in the transport sector. The most important policy measures at the time of writing for the EU and the USA are given below. For an overview of worldwide policy support measures for biofuels, see the EC (2006) the IEA (2006b) and Martinot el al. (2006). 

Table 15.1. Policy measures in the United States encouraging hydrogen vehicles...

Policy instruments (see Table 19.5) to meet the various sustainability targets may be classified into infrastructure investment, traffic demand management (TDM), regulation, pricing and support research and development (R D) in new technologies. Each of these measures consists of several variants, which will, however, not be considered in detail in this volume. The following matrix undertakes an attempt to propose the appropriateness of the various classes of policy measures to meet specific subobjectives of a sustainable transport development. 

The low rate of 1 % annual energy-efficiency improvement over the last 35 years raises more questions. What are the major obstacles and market imperfections that have to be addressed by policy measures in order to speed up the realisation of energy and material efficiency potentials Since obstacles and market imperfections have been the object of study for a long time (IPCC, 2001), are there any additional concepts of motivation or opportunities which have not yet been applied but which are likely to speed up activities and markets for realising energy efficiency options ... 

The emphasis here is on the various routinely used measurement processes. These create huge banks of data that become influential in deciding public policy. Measurements made only occasionally or during research (Table 6-1) are more easily scrutinized at the time of data application and therefore are not dicussed here. Specifications for most types of available instrumentation have been compiled and discussed by the Environmental Instrumentation Group, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. ... 

The selection of variables is of central importance for the outcome of a system comparison on environmental and resource use impacts. The ideal variable or set of variables respectively provides information and describes the state of environmental phenomena with certain significance. Thus, applying a set of variables should make it possible to monitor and assess the state of the environment, to identify changes and trends, to transmit scientific data to become relevant for policy, and to evaluate already implemented policy measures. The concept of environmental indicators is broadly accepted as an adequate tool. Accordingly, an indicator is defined as a parameter or a value derived from parameters, which indicates the state of the environment with significance extending beyond that which is directly associated with a parameter value. A parameter s definition in this context is a property that is measured or observed (OECD 1994). Fieri et al. (1996) states that the purposes of indicators are as follows ... 

In reality, not every indicator can be measured easily. For environmental indicators which are difficult to measure, measuring can cause substantial cost. Furthermore, detailed agri-environmental policy measures might be quite costly to administer. The interactions between different environmental indicators are not fully understood. In many cases, scientific knowledge of these interactions... 

Brouwer, F. (1997). Pesticides in the European Union. In Oskam, A. J. and R. A. N. Vijftigsehild (eds) Policy measures to control evironmental impact from agriculture. Proeeedings and Discussion. Workshop on pesticides Wageningen. 

Phase 3 Market Expansion (10-20 years)-work will seek cost reductions of fuel cells through the development of large-scale manufacturing (mass production) continue hydrogen supply infrastructure development on a national level refinement of policy measures (fiscal and regulatory) and, continue support of RD D in areas of new advancements in hydrogen and fuel cells. 

Tuson, J. and Lampkin, N. H. (eds.) 2006. Organic farming policy measures in pre-2004 EU member states and Switzerland. EU-CEE-OFP project report European Commission. University of Wales, Aberystwyth. 

In short, the mechanisms of the market have performed admirably in serving the needs of corporations and health consumers in wealthy countries. These same mechanisms have proven all but useless for citizens of poor countries - particularly those who are suffering from diseases that do not occur in the developed world. This dynamic is referred to as "market failure." It has been compounded by the failure of governments to implement robust public policy measures aimed at supporting public health where the market leaves off. 

Grant R, Blicher-Mathiesen G (2004) Danish policy measures to reduce diffuse nitrogen emissions from agriculture to the aquatic environment. Water Sci Technol 49 91-99... 

Morawska and co-workers have produced a number of review articles on this topic. For example, Holmes and Morawska [20] reviewed several simple and complex models covering a wide range of urban scales for the dispersion of particulate matter. Morawska et al. [21] focused on vehicle produced ultrafine particles and discussed limitations of measurement methods, sources, characteristics, transport and exposure of these particles in urban environments. Their further review focused on indoor and outdoor monitoring of airborne nanoparticles [3]. Morawska [22] discussed the importance of airborne ENPs from the health perspective. Regulations and policy measures related to the reduction of ambient particulate matter were discussed in their follow-up article [23], Their recent review article discussed the commuters exposure to ultrafine particles and associated health effects [24]. 

Morawska L, Jayaratne ER, Rnibbs LD, Megatmokhtar M (2010) Regulations and policy measures related to the reduction of ambient particulate matter. In Zereini F, Wiseman C (eds) Urban particulate matter origins, chemistry, fate and health impacts. Springer, Berlin... 

Byakola T. (2000). Technological options and policy measures for methane mitigation in Uganda Possibilities and limitations. Proceedings of the Second International Methane Mitigation Conference (June 18 - 23, 2000, Novosibirsk). Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, pp. 95-100. 

Table 5. Results, Effect of EU ETS and UK policy measures, percentage change...

In the absence of any Community provisions in this area and without prejudice to the Commission s right of initiative in proposing such provisions, it is for each Member State to formulate the policies, measures and instruments it wishes to adopt in order to comply with the targets set under the Kyoto Protocol. 

The results of the above analysis for the market potential for each type of application are demonstrated in Table 6.1. These results are based on previous studies condcucted by Merten (1998), Tsoutsos et al. (2004) and Zoulias et al. (2006), but it must be noted that they represent a market estimation that was conducted without taking into account external factors such as policy measures, subsidies etc. 

Publishing substances subject to targets on the REACH-IT website could promote the communication and co-ordination of a wide set of risk management and policy measures within industry subgroups or NGO at national and EU levels. 

An effective system of communication with and toward consumers on risks and policy measures needs to be established. 

---