Kerosene, 102 Table

Properties. Shell s two-step SMDS technology allows for process dexibiUty and varied product slates. The Hquid product obtained consists of naphtha, kerosene, and gas oil in ratios from 15 25 60 to 25 50 25, depending on process conditions. Of particular note are the high quaHty gas oil and kerosene. Table 2 gives SMDS product quaHties for these fractions. 

The presence of thiophene and its derivatives in crude oils was detected in 1899, but until 1953, the date at which the methyl-thiophenes were identified in kerosene from Agha Jari, Iran crude oil, it was believed that they came from the degradation of sulfides during refining operations. Finally, their presence was no longer doubted after the identification of benzothiophenes and their derivatives (Table 8.9), and lately of naphthenobenzothiophenes in heavy cuts. 

Separation of Aromatic and Aliphatic Hydrocarbons. Aromatics extraction for aromatics production, treatment of jet fuel kerosene, and enrichment of gasoline fractions is one of the most important appHcations of solvent extraction. The various commercial processes are summarized in Table 4. 

Liquid fuels for ground-based gas turbines are best defined today by ASTM Specification D2880. Table 4 Hsts the detailed requirements for five grades which cover the volatility range from naphtha to residual fuel. The grades differ primarily in basic properties related to volatility eg, distillation, flash point, and density of No. 1 GT and No. 2 GT fuels correspond to similar properties of kerosene and diesel fuel respectively. These properties are not limited for No. 0 GT fuel, which allows naphthas and wide-cut distillates. For heavier fuels. No. 3 GT and No. 4 GT, the properties that must be limited are viscosity and trace metals. 

Combustion. The primary reaction carried out in the gas turbine combustion chamber is oxidation of a fuel to release its heat content at constant pressure. Atomized fuel mixed with enough air to form a close-to-stoichiometric mixture is continuously fed into a primary zone. There its heat of formation is released at flame temperatures deterruined by the pressure. The heat content of the fuel is therefore a primary measure of the attainable efficiency of the overall system in terms of fuel consumed per unit of work output. Table 6 fists the net heat content of a number of typical gas turbine fuels. Net rather than gross heat content is a more significant measure because heat of vaporization of the water formed in combustion cannot be recovered in aircraft exhaust. The most desirable gas turbine fuels for use in aircraft, after hydrogen, are hydrocarbons. Fuels that are liquid at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature are the most practical and widely used aircraft fuels kerosene, with a distillation range from 150 to 300 °C, is the best compromise to combine maximum mass —heat content with other desirable properties. For ground turbines, a wide variety of gaseous and heavy fuels are acceptable. 

Worldwide demand for the jet fuels specified in Table 3 amounted to about 477,000 m /d (3 million barrels per day) in 1990. About one-half of this demand was kerosene Jet A sold in the United States. One-third represented kerosene Jet A1 for dehvery to international airlines outside the United States the balance comprised various military fuels used by air forces around the world. 

Specifications The American Society for Testing and Materials has developed specifications Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Con-shohocken, Pa., updated annually) that are widely used to classify fuels. Table 27-5 shows fuels covered by ASTM D 396, Standard Specification for Fuel Oils. D 396 omits kerosenes (low-sulfur, cleanburning No. 1 fuels for lamps and freestanding flueless domestic heaters), which are covered separately by ASTM D 3699. 

Vaporized fuel oil gas behaves very elosely to natural gas beeause it provides high performanee with a minimum reduetion of eomponent life. About 40% of the turbine power installed operates on liquid fuels. Liquid fuels ean vary from light volatile naphtha through kerosene to the heavy viseous residuals. The elasses of liquid fuels and their requirements are shown in Table 12-1. 

Fuels such as diesel and kerosene readily absorb hydrocarbon vapors, the total uptake and absorption rate depending on both chemical and physical factors. If a soluble test gas is introduced above a charged test oil the concentration of flammable test gas therefore decreases with time. Liquid mist and spray produced by charged liquid increase the absorption rate relative to a quiescent liquid surface. As discussed in A-5-4, absorption could lead to an underestimation of test gas MIE near the liquid surface unless the rate of test gas introduction is sufficiently high to offset the rate of removal. Table 3-8.1.2 shows solubilities of a selection of gases in a mineral-based transformer oil at ambient temperature and pressure [200]. 

Other properties of interest are carbon residue, sediment, and acidity or neutralization number. These measure respectively the tendency of a fuel to foul combustors with soot deposits, to foul filters with dirt and rust, and to corrode metal equipment. Cetane number measures the ability of a fuel to ignite spontaneously under high temperature and pressure, and it only applies to fuel used in Diesel engines. Typical properties ol fuels in the kerosene boiling range are given in Table 1. 

Decreases with increasing wettability of liquid on plate surface. Kerosene, hexane, carbon tetrachloride, butyl alcohol, glycerine-water mixtures all wet the test plates better than pure water. The critical tray stability data of Hunt et al., [33] is given in Table 8-21 for air-water, and hence the velocities for other systems that wet the tray better than water should be somewhat lower than those tabulated. The data of Zenz [78] are somewhat higher than these tabulated values by 10-60%. 

The petroleum industry is responsible for the production of a wide range of fuel oils for industrial use. These generally range from kerosene, gas oils and diesel fuel to residual fuel. (See Table 15.3 for typical fuel oil characteristics.)... 

Example 15.2 A crude oil stream is to be preheated by recovering heat from a kerosene product in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The flowrates, temperatures and physical properties (at the mean temperatures) are given in Table 15.5. 

Berea core flood test results (Table VIII) suggested that the presence of DMAEMA improved the permeability damage characteristics of 80% NVP copolymers. The kerosene flow rate... 

Table II shows the nominal alpha dose factors for occupational mining exposure. Table III shows the alpha dose factors for the nominal environmental situation. Table IV shows the bronchial dose factors for the smallest sized particles, that dominated by the kerosene heater or 0.03 pm. particles. The radon daughter equilibrium was shifted to a somewhat higher value in this calculation because this source of particles generally elevates the particle concentration markedly with consequent increase in the daughter equilibrium. Table V shows the alpha dose for a 0.12 pm particle, the same as the nominal indoor aerosol particle, but for a particle which is assumed to be hygroscopic and grows by a factor of 4, to 0.5 pm, once in the bronchial tree.

TABLE IV. Alpha Dose in mGy/WLM for Males. Kerosene Heater Aerosol. Breathing Pattern and Specific Conditions,... 

Table III. Average Zeta-Potentials of Carbon Black in Kerosene ...

The transportation fuels produced and marketed (Table 18.9)40 met the South African fuel specifications of that time and included some coal-derived liquids (not shown in Figure 18.5). Although the refinery originally produced no jet fuel, it was demonstrated that the hydrogenated kerosene range oligomers from olefin oligomerization over a solid phosphoric acid catalyst met the requirements for jet fuel.38 (Semisynthetic jet fuel was approved in 1999 and fully synthetic jet fuel was approved in 2008 DEFSTAN 91-91/Issue 6). 

Formulations of chlorpyrifos include emulsifiable concentrates, wettable powders, granules, pellets, microencapsulates, and impregnated materials. Suggested diluents for concentrates include water and petroleum distillates, such as kerosene and diesel oil. Carrier compounds include synthetic clays with alkyl/aryl sulfonates as wetting agents (Table 14.1). Little information is available to assess the influence of various use formulations on toxicity, dispersal, decomposition, and bioavailability. Chemical and other properties of chlorpyrifos are summarized in Table 14.2 and Figure 14.1. 

A refinery has available two crude oils that have the yields shown in the following table. Because of equipment and storage limitations, production of gasoline, kerosene, and fuel oil must be limited as also shown in this table. There are no plant limitations on the production of other products such as gas oils. 

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