Army worm, fall

Fall Army Worm (Laphygma frugiperda A. S.). Although it is only occasionally that the fall army worm becomes a pest of rice, there are seasons in which numerous fields are attacked by large numbers of this pest, with serious injury resulting. Any one at all familiar with army worms will readily understand the destruction caused by this insect in unflooded fields of rice. It probably would be surprising to those who have never witnessed it how effectively these worms are able to get to new plants in a field heavily flooded. 

Although flooding has been recommended for the control of fall army worms in rice, in the writer s experience this method is not effective. Toxaphene applied as a spray at the rate of 2 pounds per acre has been found to constitute good control. 

Baculoviruses are members of a large group of double-stranded DNA viruses which only infect invertebrates, including insects. The restricted host range makes baculoviruses safer than mammalian expression systems. The most widely used baculoviruses are Autographa califor-nica nuclear polyhedrosis virus and the Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus. The host cell most commonly used is Sf9, derived from the fall army worm Spodoptera frugiperda. 

Cells derived from the ovary of the fall army worm Spodopterafrugiperda are the most common used cell lines for heterologous protein production with a baculovirus vector (see Table l),but some authors have reported the use of a different cell line for VLP production, Trichoplusia ni HighFive cells (Invitrogen, San Diego, US) [24,41,50]. 

Azadirachtin, which is a tetranortriterpenoid, is an active ingredient of neem Azadirachta indica) seed oil. The structure of azadirachtin is as follows. It controls 200 species of insects, including locusts, gypsy moths, cockroaches, and fall army worms. It has an oral LD50in rats of >5000 mg/kg, making it essentially nontoxic to mammals. 

In the fall army worm, Spodopterafrugiperda, sulfoxidation of phorate requires NADPH. It is inhibited by carbon monoxide and piperonyl butoxide, and induced by cytochrome P450 inducers (e.g., indole 3-carbinol and indole 3-acetonitrile) (Yu, 1985). 

Carboxylamidase activity toward p-nitroacetanilide has been detected in different insect species from the orders Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and Dictyoptera. The carboxylamidase from fall army worm larvae has been purified. The purified enzyme is a monomer with a molecular weight of 59,000-60,000 Da. The enzyme is inhibited by the hydrolase inhibitors paraoxon, triphenyl phosphate, eserine, and phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, showing I50 values of 4.7 iM, 0.2 mM, 16 iM, and 90 iM, respectively. Activity is also completely inhibited by the organophosphorus insecticides profenfos and dichlorvos at 0.1 mM. The enzyme is active toward other amides, such as acetanilide and phenacetin, and various a- and p-naphtholic esters. Based on the purification factor, substrate specificity, and sensitivity to hydrolase inhibitors, the carboxylamidase appears to be different from carboxy-lesterases in the fall army worm (Yu and Nguyen, 1998). 

Quinones such as juglone and plambagin were reduced by quinone reductase in fall army-worms, corn earworms, tobacco budworm, and velvetbean caterpillars (Yu, 1987b). 

Glutathione S-transferases have received considerable attention because of their roles in insecticide detoxification and resistance in insects. Cytosolic glutathione S-transferases have been purified from more than two dozen insect species, including Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Dictyoptera, and Hymenoptera. These transferases exist in multiple forms as many as nine isozymes were found in midguts and fat bodies of fall army worm... 

Bull, D.L., Ivie, G.W., Beier, R.C., and Pryor, N.W., In vitro metabolism of a linear furanocoumarin (8-methoxypsoralen, xanthotoxin) by mixed-function oxidases of larvae of black swallowtail butterfly and fall army worm, /. Chem. Ecol., 12,885,1986. 

Yu, S.J., Microsomal sulfoxidation of phorate in the fall army worm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith), Pestic. Biochem. Physiol., 23, 273,1985. 

As for midgut glutathione S-transferases, it was reported that the highly polyphagous insects, fall army worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea),... 

Table 9.17 Toxicity of several organophosphorus insecticides to fall army worm larvae fed soybean or cowpea leaves...

Yu, S.J. and Hsu, E.L., Induction of hydrolases by allelochemicals and host plants in fall army worms (Lepidoptera Noctuidae) larvae, Environ. Entomoi, 14, 512,1985. 

A single gene may be responsible for the resistance, and in these cases the level of resistance can be quite high. Well-known examples are the 2000-fold resistance to organophosphates in spider mites, spinosad resistance in western flower thrips, DDT resistance in houseflies, and dieldrin resistance in several Diptera. In other cases, multiple genes are clearly involved in the resistance. Examples are carbaryl resistance in houseflies (Georghiou, 1972), carbaryl resistance in fall army worms (Yu et al., 2003), and malathion resistance in oriental houseflies (Yeoh et al., 1981). 

Population mobility is a very important behavioral factor for resistance development. The influx of migrants tends to dilute the frequency of resistance among survivors of treatments, especially for highly mobile insects such as the fall army worm and velvetbean caterpillar. Computer simulation indicated that a moderate rate of immigration of susceptible individuals could ensure the containment of resistance if the initial population was of low density and if a short-lived pesticide was used in regular treatments. 

The azido derivative 683 (CGA 19255) had herbicidal and even better insecticidal activity. 683 prevented the development of the larvae of the house fly (Musca domestica) it was tested successfully as a poultry feed-through lar-vicide " . 684 (CGA 72622 cyromazine, Larvadex ), a metabolite of 683 23,824 proved to be better suitable as a larvicide " . It inhibited growth of a great variety of Diptera insect larvae (e.g. house fly, yellow fever mosquito, face fly, sheep blowfly, fall army worm). Additionally, 684 was used as anthelmintic . 684 is applied as a food additive for domestic or livestock animals or by spraying it on manure surface. Larvicidal properties of formamido " and formamidino derivatives of 684 have been tested. The bacterial degradation of 684 was investigated . ... 

Spined soldier bug Podisus maculiventris Hairless caterpillors, including fall army worms, sawfly larvae, tent caterpillars beetle larvae such as those of Colorado potato beetle and Mexican bean beetle. Release 2 5 per squore yard of bean or potato patch to control beetle larvae. Experimental results best on tent caterpillars and bean beetles not very promising on Colorado potato beetles. 

The stilbenes from the bark of Yucca periculosa F. Baker had growth regulatory activity against the Fall Army worm, an insect pest of com. 3,3, 5,5 -Tetrahydroxy-4-methoxystilbene was found to be the most active compound showing significant effect at 3 pg/g in diets. The results indicate the possible correlation of some antioxidant activities with insect growth and development [498],... 

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