Poultry feeds

Urea is also used as feed supplement for mminants, where it assists in the utilization of protein. Urea is one of the raw materials for urea—formaldehyde resins. Urea (with ammonia) pyrolyzes at high temperature and pressure to form melamine plastics (see also Cyanamides). Urea is used in the preparation of lysine, an amino acid widely used in poultry feed (see Amino acids Feeds and feed additives, petfoods). It also is used in some pesticides. 

Because of the simplicity of swiae and poultry feeds, most feed manufacturers add vitamins (qv) and trace minerals to ensure an adequate supply of essential nutrients. Amino acids (qv) such as methionine [7005-18-7] lysiae [56-87-17, threonine [36676-50-3] and tryptophan [6912-86-3], produced by chemical synthesis or by fermentation (qv), are used to fortify swiae and poultry diets. The use of these supplements to provide the essential amino acids permits diets with lower total cmde proteia coateat. 

Chemically synthesized antimicrobials used in animal and poultry feeds include arsenicals, eg, arsanilic acid [98-50-0] sodium arsanilate [127-85-5] and roxarsone [121-19-7]-, sulfa dmgs, eg, sulfadimethoxine [122-11-2], sulfamethazine [57-68-1], and sulfathiazole [72-14-0]-, carbadox [6804-07-5]-, and nitrofurans, eg, furazoHdone [67 5-8] and nitrofurazone [59-87-0] (see Antibacterial agents, synthetic Antiparasitic agents). 

Animal Feed. In animal feeds (1—3% lecithin) lecithin is an emulsifier wetting and dispersiag agent energy source antioxidant surfactant source of choline, organically combiaed phosphoms and iaositol and Hpotropic agent. It is used ia a milk replacer formula for calves (approximately 10,000 t of lecithin ate used for this purpose) and for veal production, ia mineral feeds, poultry feeds, fish foods, pet foods, and feeds for fur-beating animals (30). 

Arsonic and arsinic acids have found a number of industrial uses. They have been used as corrosion inhibitors for iron and steel, additives to motor fuel, agricultural bactericides, herbicides, and fungicides. 3-Nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid (roxarsone) [121 -19-7] C H AsNOg, has found widespread use as an additive to poultry feed for the control of coccidiosis and other poultry diseases (122,123). Arsanilic acid [98-50-0] C HgAsNO, has also been used for this purpose (124) and for growth promotion in swine. It is manufactured and suppHed by Duphar Nutrition Co., Inc., Fleming Laboratories, Inc., Dr. Mayfield Laboratories, Inc., and Whitmoyer Laboratories, Inc. 4-Nitrophenylarsonic acid [98-72-6] C H AsNO and... 

Monoethylamine is used in the synthesis of Sevin, an important insecticide. Trimethylamine has only one major use, the synthesis of choline, a high-energy additive for poultry feed. 

Poultry feed ingredient (pigmentation of broilers and egg yolks) Torres-Cardona et al., U.S. Patent 5,523,494, 1994... 

Additive (dried flower meal or solvent extract) to poultry feed, to enhance the yellow color of flesh and egg yolks minor use of extract as food colorant typical applications salad dressings, ice cream, dairy products, other foods with high fat contents, soft drinks, bakery products, jams and confectionery... 

As has been pointed out earlier in this chapter, the dietary consumption and historical medicinal use of carotenoids has been well documented. In the modern age, in addition to crocin, 3.7, and norbixin, 3.8, several carotenoids have become extremely important commercially. These include, in particular, astaxanthin, 3.6 (fish, swine, and poultry feed, and recently human nutritional supplements) lutein, 3.4, and zeaxanthin, 3.3 (animal feed and poultry egg production, human nutritional supplements) and lycopene, 3.2 (human nutritional supplements). The inherent lipophilicity of these compounds has limited their potential applications as hydrophilic additives without significant formulation efforts in the diet, the lipid content of the meal increases the absorption of these nutrients, however, parenteral administration to potentially effective therapeutic levels requires separate formulation that is sometimes ineffective or toxic (Lockwood et al. 2003). 

Determination of safe levels of copper in livestock and poultry feeds (NAS 1977), and in diets of avian and mammalian wildlife... 

A C30 RP column has been applied for the separation of carotenoids present in various matrices such as human serum, raw and thermally processed carrots, a Duniella algae-derived preparation and a poultry feed. Samples were mixed with deionized water and CaC03, homogenized and extracted with acetone-hexane (1 1, v/v). 

From 1972 to 1973, Abbott Labs in North Chicago, IL, recovered beers with a BOD5 (five-day biological oxygen demand) load potential of 20,000 Ib/day or greater. In the process, the spent beers were concentrated by multiple effect evaporators to 30% solids and the resulting syrup sold as a poultry feed additive. Any excess was incinerated in the main plant boilers. Abbott Labs reported that an average overall BOD reduction efficiency of the system up to 96% or more could be achieved. 

Basic copper carbonate is used as a pigment in paint and varnish as a fungicide for seed treatment as an insecticide in pyrotechnics and in the manufacture of other copper salts. The compound is also added in small quantities to animal and poultry feed to supply nutritional copper requirements. 

Potassium iodide is found in seaweed. Some important appbcations of this compound involve its use in pharmaceuticals and as a source of iodine in food, especially in animal and poultry feed. Potassium iodide is added to table salt to provide iodine in human food. 

Campagnolo E.R., K.R. Johnson, A. Karpati, C.S. Rubin, D.W. Kolpin, M.T. Meyer, J.E. Esteban, R.W. Currier, K. Smith, K.M. Thug, and M. McGeehin (2002). Antimicrobial residues in animal waste and water resources proximal to large-scale swine and poultry feeding operations. Science of the Total Environment 299 89-95. 

Monensin plays a dual role in veterinary practice because it is used both as a coccidiostat in poultry and as a growth promotant in cattle. It is also efficacious in the control of coccidiosis in lambs and calves, can treat ketosis in dairy cows, and can control bloat in pastured dairy cattle. It is administered incorporated in poultry feeds as a coccidiostat at a dose up to 120 ppm, and in cattle and sheep feeds at a dose of 11-33 ppm. Monensin is not recommended for administration to laying hens, while a 3 day withdrawal period is required for chicken meat. 

Arsanilic acid is added to swine and poultry feeds at a dosage rate of up to 100 ppm for growth-promoting purposes. It is also effective for prophylaxis and treatment of many outbreaks associated with E. coli infections in swine. To treat scour in swine, arsanilic acid is administered in the feed, at a level of 250 ppm for up to 3 weeks. Arsanilic acid may also be administered to poultry for treatment of coliform septicemia at a level of 250 ppm in the feed for 5-8 days. 

Roxarsone has been used by the poultry industry due primarily to its ability to improve growth, feed conversion, and pigmentation to broilers. At least 50% of the poultry industry has used roxarsone as a growth promoter, although the drug also exhibits anticoccidial activity similar to that of arsanilic acid (3). Roxarsone is not approved for use as anticoccidial in the United States, but it is approved for use in chicken and turkey feeds as a growth promoter. It is added in poultry feeds at a rate of 50 ppm and in swine feeds at 25-37.5 ppm. 

When administered orally, halquinol is not absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and, thus, is effective for controlling intestinal tract infections in swine and poultry. It is added to swine feeds at a level of 100-600 ppm and to poultry feeds at 30 ppm. 

Gentian violet has been utilized in the past as a feed additive for inhibiting mold and fungal growth in poultry feeds at a level of up to 8 ppm. The authorization of this dye as a feed additive was withdrawn in 1991, because evidence was presented that gentian violet had a tumorigenic effect in several organs of mice (61). 

LG Rice, PF Ross, J Dejong. Evaluation of a liquid chromatographic method for the determination of fumonisins in com, poultry feed and Fusarium culture material. J AOAC Int 78(4) 1002-1009, 1995. 

It is clear that the idealism set out initially in the principles of organic agriculture has had to be tempered by practical considerations. The standards adopted have to aim for a balance between the desire of consumers for organic products and considerations of ethical and ecological integrity and the practical and financial needs of producers. As a result, synthetic vitamins are now allowed in organic poultry feeds, with some restrictions. 

El Boushy, A.R.Y. and van der Poel, A.F.B. (2000) Palatability and feed intake regulations. In Handbook of Poultry Feed from Waste Processing and Use, 2nd edn. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp. 348-397. 

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