Pest insects

Helianthus is native to North America, where many insects have coevolved with the genus. In North America, over 150 phytophagous insects have been reported on the sunflower (Hilgendorf and Goeden, 1981 Rajamokan, 1976 Rogers, 1988), while over 240 insect species have been recorded on sunflower in Central and Eastern Europe (Marie et al., 1988). With this exceptionally wide cross 

Biology and Chemistry of Jerusalem Artichoke Helianthus tuberosus L. 

Bees Recorded Visiting Jerusalem Artichoke Flowers 

Andrenidae Andrena accepta Andrena aliceae Andrena chromotricha Andrena helianthi Andrena simplex Pseudopanurgas rugosus Pterosarus innuptus Pterosarus labrosiformis labrosiformis Pterosarus labrosus 

Anthoporidae Pterosarus piercei piercei Pterosarus solidaginis Epeolus autumnalis Svastra oblique 

The abdomen this has no structures attached to it except in certain female species where the egg-laying apparatus may protrude from the end. 

Antenna Maxilliary palp Labial palp Eye Front leg Pronotum 

Knowledge of the life-cycles of insects is important when identifying the pest and deeiding on the best method of control. Most insects begin life as a result of an egg having been laid by the female. What emerges from the egg, according to the speeies, may or may not look like the adult insect There are two main types of life-cycle  

The complete or four-stage life-cycle (flies, beetles, butterflies, moths and 

Insects vary in the length of time it takes to complete their life-cycle for example click beetles (larvae - wireworm) may take five years, whereas crane fly (larvae - leatheijackets) take a year. The time of year when larvae are found also varies between species. 

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Juvabione is a substance produced by some conifers in imitation of a hormone in an insect pest. It may be a kind of natural control of the pest as it prevents it reaching maturity. 

Termites may cause more direct monetary damage than any other group of insect pests. It has been estimated that termites damage human made stmctures annually to the extent of 1% of their value in the United States and to 10% in the tropics. 

Since the early 1940s, insecticides have been of immeasurable value in curbing the ravages of insect pests. In the words of the National Academy of Sciences "...when their use is approached from sound ecological principles, chemical pesticides provide dependable and valuable tools for the biologist. Their use is indispensable in modem society. There are many problems of insect pest control for which the use of chemicals provides the only acceptable solution. Chemical pesticides will continue to be one of the most dependable weapons for the entomologist for the foreseeable future" (6). 

The various fumigants often exhibit considerable specificity toward insect pests, as shown in Table 8. The proper choice for any control operation is determined not only by the effectiveness of the gas but by cost safety to humans, animals, and plants flammabdity penetratabdity effect on seed germination and reactivity with furnishings. The fumigants may be used individually or in combination. Carbon tetrachloride has been incorporated with carbon disulfide, ethylene dichloride, or ethylene dibromide to decrease flammability, and carbon dioxide is used with ethylene oxide for the same purpose. 

Microsporida, especially Nosema spp., are pathogens in many insect pests. However, only Nosema locustae which attacks grasshoppers, is marketed. 

Baits include mixtures of toxicant, usually at l ndash 5%, with a carrier especially attractive to the insect pest. Carriers include sugar for the houseflies, protein hydrolysates for fmit flies, bran for grasshoppers, and honey, chocolate, or peanut butter for ants. 

Genetic Control. Manipulation of the mechanisms of inheritance of the insect pest populations has occurred most successhiUy through the mass release of steri1i2ed males, but a variety of other techniques have been studied, including the environmental use of chemostetilants and the mass introduction of deleterious mutations, eg, conditional lethals and chromosomal translocations (58 ndash 60) (see Genetic engineering). 

Other food lures which have had practical use ia trapping insect pests include isoamyl saUcylate [87-20-7] for moths of the tomato and tobacco homworms, Manduca spp. heptyl butyrate [5870-93-0] for stinging yeUowjackets, Vespula spp. and l-octene-3-ol [3391-86-4] for the bloodsucking tsetse dies, Glossina spp. 

National Academy of Sciences, Insect Pest Manage. Control, 1695 (1969). 

E. R. Mitchell, ed.. Management of Insect Pests with Semiochemicals, Plenum Press, New York, 1981. 

In rare cases where tire plants have Ireen attacked hy certain insect pests, oils have been obtained which are deitro-rotatoiy up to + I". 

To date, the females of more than 150 species of insects have been reported to produce a sex attractant or excitant for the male, and males of more than 50 species have been shown to produce such materials to attract or sexually excite the females (39). Table I lists insect pests of the order Lepidoptera in which the occurrence of sex attractants has been reported since 1960. In addition, investigators... 

Table I. Lepidopterous Insect Pests in Which Sex Attractants Have Been Demonstrated Since 1960...

Genetic Control. Some Insect pests have been successfully controlled by releasing sterile Insect males in sufficient quantity so that the pest population cannot reproduce. This has proven particularly effective in the control of the screwworm fly, a major pest of cattle (33). Genetic engineers may be able to provide other genetic techniques that will enhance the control of crop pests (34). 

Behavioral and Hormonal Chemicals. Sex pheromones, which attract pests to traps, are used effectively to control some insect pests, like the grape berry moth (46) and cabbage looper. With other Insect pests, sex pheromones have been effectively used to monitor the size of pest insect populations to determine when pesticide treatments should be made. 

Dowd P.F. Lagrimini L.M. (2006) Examination of the biological effects of high anionic peroxidases production in tobacco plants grown imder field conditions. 1. Insect pest damage. / / Transgenic Research. V. 15. P. 197-204. 

Preparations of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (BT) are applied as sprays to control insect pests on agricultural crops. The bacterium produces endotoxins that are highly toxic to insects. 

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