Dorsal

CGRP is widely distributed throughout the peripheral and central nervous systems and is found ia sensory neurons and ia the autonomic and enteric nervous systems. In many iastances CGRP is co-localized with other neuroregulators, eg, ACh ia motor neurons, substance P, somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and galanin ia sensory neurons. It is also present ia the CNS, with ACh ia the parabigeminal nucleus and with cholecystokinin (CCK) ia the dorsal parabrachial area. CGRP functions as a neuromodulator or co-transmitter. 

Amylin [106602-62-4] (75) (Fig. 4) is a 37-amino acid peptide having approximately 46% sequence similarity to CGRP (33). Amylin is present ia pancreatic P-ceUs along with insulin. It may function as a hormone ia glucoregulation and has been proposed as an etiologic factor ia certain forms of diabetes. Amylin is also present ia dorsal root ganglia (see INSULIN AND OTHER ANTIDIABETIC DRUGS). 

The class II cytokine receptor family includes receptors for interferon a/P (lEN a/P) and y (lENy) and IL-10. lEN-y immunoreactivity has been found in neurons in the hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, mammilary nuclei, and dorsal tegmentum. Astrocytes and microglia in vitro can be stimulated to express class II histocompatibiHty complex (MHC-II) antigens by lEN-y, which may be involved in the presentation of antigen to T-ceUs by astrocytes. Thus lEN-y may be critical in CNS-immune function and dysfunction especially in regard to neuronal and gHal apoptotic processes. 

As a neurotransmitter in the sensory nervous system, high levels of substance P are found in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord as well as in peripheral sensory nerve terminals. However, substance P also plays a significant role as a neuromodulator in the central, sympathetic, and enteric nervous system. NKA and NKB are also localized selectively in the CNS. 

Three tachykinin GPCRs, NK, NK, and NK, have been identified and cloned. AH are coupled to phosphatidjhnositol hydrolysis. The NK receptor is selective for substance P (SP) and is relatively abundant in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral tissues. The NK receptor is selective for NKA and is present in the gastrointestinal tract, urinary bladder, and adrenal gland but is low or absent in the CNS. The NIC receptor is selective for NKB and is present in low amounts in the gastrointestinal tract and urinary bladder, but is abundant in some areas of the CNS, ie, the spinal dorsal bom, soUtary nucleus, and laminae IV and V of the cortex with moderate amounts in the interpeduncular nucleus. Mismatches in the distribution of the tachykinins and tachykinin receptors suggest the possibility of additional tachykinin receptor subtypes. 

One of the more intriguing cardiovascular developments is cardiomyoplasty where implantable technologies are blended with another part of the body to take over for a diseased heart. One company, Medtronic, in close collaboration with surgeons, has developed a cardiomyoplasty system to accompany a technique of wrapping back muscle around a diseased heart which can no longer adequately pump. A combination pacemaker and neurological device senses the electrical activity of the heart and correspondingly trains and stimulates the dorsal muscle to cause the defective heart to contract and pump blood. Over 50 implants have been performed to date. 

Riicken-. back, dorsal, spinal, -ansicht./. rear view, -bein, n. backbone, spine, -mark, n. spinal cord, -saule, /. vertebral column, -seite, /. back side, back, rear, -weh, n. lumbago, -wirbel, m. dorsal vertebra. 

Wampler and Jamieson (1980) studied 12 species of luminous earthworms belonging to six genera (Diplocardia, Diplotrema, Fletcherodrilus, Octochaetus, Pontodrilus and Spenceriella) from the United States, Australia and New Zealand, and found that all of the species exude luminous coelomic fluid from their dorsal pores, except Pontodrilus bermudensis that exudes the fluid from the mouth. All of them emit luminescence of broad emission spectra with the peaks ranging from 500 nm to over 570 nm. 

The area postrema is a circumventricular brain region positioned on the dorsal surface of the medulla on the floor of the fourth ventricle. The blood-brain barrier and the cerebrospinal fluid-brain barrier are absent in this region and consequently many substances that do not pass across capillaries in other regions of the brain can do so in the area postrema. The chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ), located in the lateral area postrema is sensitive to blood-borne emetogens. Nerves from the CTZ connect with the vomiting centre. 

These are a subset of sensory neurons having their cell bodies (small to medium size) in dorsal root and in cranial nerve ganglia and possessing nonmyelinated (C-type) or thinly myelinated (A-delta type) fibres. This subset of neurons express transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1, or vanilloid, or capsaicin receptor) that is excited by capsaicin, the pungent ingredient of chilli. These neurons have been classified as polymodal nociceptors because they can be excited by various noxious stimuli. 

The neurokinin, substance P (SP), may be involved as a sensory transmitter in afferent vagal nerves involved in the vomiting reflex. Both SP and its receptors (NKi receptors) have been detected in several areas of the brain associated with vomiting, including the AP, NTS and dorsal motor vagal nucleus. The neurokinin can activate neurons in the AP and NTS. SP is present also in sensory nerves in the gut as well as being co-localised with serotonin in some enterochromaffin cells. 

Release of SP from neurons in the AP, NTS and dorsal vagal motor nucleus may play a role in vomiting induced by cytotoxics. Based on the relative effectiveness of selective antagonists of 5-HT3 receptors and NKi receptors against acute and delayed phases of cisplatin-induced vomiting, it has been suggested that serotonin has a greater role in the acute phase whereas SP has the major role in the delayed phase. 

The locus cemleus is important for the regulation of attentional states and autonomic nervous system activity. It has also been implicated in the autonomic and stress-like effects of opiate withdrawal. A noradrenergic pathway originating from the locus cemleus which descends into the spinal cord is part of the descending inhibitory control system, which has an inhibitory effect on nociceptive transmission in the dorsal horn. 

Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) is the generic term for a family of dimeric eukaryotic transcription factors, composed of members of the Rel family of DNA-binding proteins including the mammalian proteins RelA (or p65), cRel, RelB, p50 and p52, and the Drosophila proteins Dorsal, Dif and Relish. These proteins bind with different affinities to a consensus DNA sequence motif (called the kB site) consisting of the sequence 5 -GGGRNNYYCC-3 in which R is a purine, Y is a pyrimidine, and N is any base. 

Major efferent projections of the hypothalamic orexin system comprise descending and ascending, dorsal and ventral pathways that terminate preferentially in aminergic, endocrine, and autonomic control centers in the hypothalamus, midbrain, brainstem, and spinal cord, as well as in limbic cortical and subcortical structures, including sqDtum, amygdala, thalamus,... 

Afferent input from cutaneous and visceral nociceptors is known to converge on spinal neurons, which accounts for the referral of pain between visceral and cutaneous structures (e.g. cardiac pain gets referred to the chest and left upper arm in patients suffering from angina pectoris). Projection neurons in the spinal dorsal horn project to cell nuclei in supraspinal areas such as the thalamus, brainstem and midbrain. Of these, the synaptic junctions in the thalamus play a very important role in the integration and modulation of spinal nociceptive and non-nociceptive inputs. Nociceptive inputs are finally conducted to the cortex where the sensation of pain is perceived (Fig. 1). The mechanisms via which the cortex processes nociceptive inputs are only poorly understood. 

Motor stereotypy Dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate putamen)... 

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